June 2005

(1)
Microbiology is the study of organisms not visible to the naked eye, thus requiring the use of a microscope to see them
(i.e. microscopic organisms or sometimes called microbes)
Prions
Viruses
Bacteria
Fungi
Protozoa

(2)
What are Germs?
• Germs are microorganisms that are likely to cause disease
• Microorganisms are found throughout the environment. Only a very small number are pathogenic, i.e. capable of causing disease, and not all diseases are caused by microorganisms
• Some bacteria live in our gut and help to digest food.
Some yeasts and bacteria are used in baking, brewing or cheese making
• Bacteria are just one type of micro-organism, alongside viruses, fungi and protozoa

Germs
Bacteria Viruses Fungi
Gram
Positive
Gram
Negative
Enveloped
Non-
Enveloped
Spore
Formers
Non-Spore
Formers
Salmonella
E.coli
Campylobacter
Influenza
HIv
Rotavirus
Poliovirus
SRSV
Moulds
Bacillus subtilis
Bacillus cereus
Clostridium perfringens
Staphylococcus
Listeria
*Germs = all potentially harmful micro-organisms
Protozoa
Giardia
Cryptosporidium
Yeasts
Cladosporium
Aspergillus
Penicillium
Candida

(1)
Bacteria are prokaryotes and have a characteristic cellular organisation. They are simple, small, unicellular organisms, varying in size between 1-20 um long
Bacteria can be classified by shape: e.g.
Spherical (coccus)
Staphylococcus aureus
Spiral/helical e.g. Treponema e.g
Rod (bacilli)
Escherichia coli

(2)
• Not all bacteria cause disease. Most bacterial species cannot cause disease. Many even play beneficial roles e.g. producing antibiotics. Our bodies are covered with commensal bacteria (the normal flora)
• Even among bacteria that can cause disease, only a few species are always pathogenic. Many free-living bacteria or members of the normal flora are potentially pathogenic in certain types of individual (particularly the immuno-compromised), but are most of the time harmless
• Consumers tend to be very aware of pathogenic bacteria such as
Salmonella , Listeria and E.coli
that have made headlines in recent years in connection with outbreaks of food poisoning.
They often regard bacteria as modern problems that are more hazardous than traditional “germs”

The nature of the cell wall determines the classification of bacteria as either Gram-positive or Gram-negative, as determined by the
Gram stain
• Gram-positive bacteria : cell wall is a thick multi-layer of peptidoglycan (a mixture of sugars and amino acids)
• Gram-negative bacteria : cell wall is thin and surrounded by an outer membrane (made up of lipopolysaccharides and lipoprotein)
Lipoteichoic acids Outer membrane
Cell wall
(peptidoglycan)
Cell membrane
(lipid bilayer) lipoprotein
Gram-positive Gram-negative

(1)
Given good growing conditions, a bacterium grows slightly in size or length, new cell wall grows through the centre, and the mother cell splits into two daughter cells.
If the environment is optimum, the two daughter cells may split into four in 15-30 minutes.
This will continue for some time until the nutrients start to run out or conditions become unstable.
Conditions are rarely optimum all of the time.

(2)
Typical Growth Curve for a Bacteria Population
• Lag Phase growth is slow whilst they become used to their new environment and nutrients
• Log Phase once the metabolic machinery is running, they start multiplying exponentially, doublingin number every few minutes
• Stationary Phase as more and more bacteria are competing for nutrients which are decreasing, growth stops and the number of bacteria stabilises
• Death Phase toxic waste products build up, nutrients have run out and thebacteria begin to die

(3)
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
Lag
0
Typical bacterial growth rate in optimum conditions
Time
0
20 mins
N° of bacteria
1
2
2 hours
6 hours
64
262,144
8 hours 16,777,216
Typical growth curve for a bacteria population
Log Stationary Death
Time
Bacteria divide by binary fission and so on ...

HIGH
100
Minimum
Growth
Temp.
Campylobacter
Staph aureus
E. coli
Salmonella
Listeria
Cl botulinum A&B
Cl perfringens
LOW
Cl botulinum E
Bacillus cereus
LOW
Heat resistance
HIGH
• Pathogenic bacteria grow best at human body temperature 37ºC. However the majority will grow between 15-45ºC
• Non-sporing cells of bacteria are killed at temperatures above 60ºC. The length of time ranges depending on the organism
• Boiling kills living cells, but will not kill all bacterial spores
• Fridges should be set below 5ºC. Some bacteria such as Listeria monocytogenes at refrigeration temperatures can grow
36
15
7
4
0
63
40
38
Bacteria die if heated for a sufficient time.
The longer the time, the greater the destruction
Bacteria grow quickly
Bacteria grow
Bacteria
Grow at slower rate
Bacteria stop growing, but do not die

(1)
Because harmful microorganisms are present everywhere in the environment, any food can become contaminated if not properly handled before consumption. There are several causes of food poisoning (bacteria, viruses, parasites, chemicals)
• Infective bacterial food poisoning infections occur when pathogens are ingested via contaminated food and the bacteria is established in the body, usually growing inside the intestinal tract and irritating intestines e.g. Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter jejuni
The infection may involve subsequent growth in other tissues
.
• Toxic bacterial food poisoning some bacteria grow in food and produce a toxin within the food which is then consumed e.g. Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus . When the food is consumed viable cells of the bacteria do not need to be present. Other microorganisms in food may produce harmful or deadly toxins while growing in the intestinal tract e.g. Clostridium perfringens , enterotoxigenic coli and enterohaemorrhagic E. coli
Escherichia

(2)
The main causes of food poisoning are:
• preparing foods too far in advance
• not cooking foods properly
• storing foods wrongly; so bacteria grow rapidly
• cross contamination of foods after cooking
• infection from people handling foods due to poor hygiene

(3)
•
•
•
Campylobacter jejuni most common cause of diarrhoea
Sources: raw and undercooked poultry and meat, raw milk and untreated water
Listeria monocytogenes causes listeriosis, a serious disease for pregnant women, babies, elderly and immunocompromised individuals
Sources: dairy products, soft cheeses, raw and undercooked meat, poultry and meat patés
Salmonella spp.
second most common cause of foodborne illness
Sources: raw and undercooked eggs,undercooked poultry and meat, dairy products, fruits and vegetables

(4)
•
•
•
Staphylococcus aureus produces a toxin that causes vomiting shortly after ingesting
Sources: cooked foods high in protein e.g. cooked meats, custard, cream cakes
E. coli O157 a bacterium that can produce a deadly toxin
Sources: undercooked hamburger/ minced beef, contaminated cooked meat and raw milk
Shigella spp.
poor hygiene causes this bacterium to be easily passed from person to person
Sources: salads, milk and dairy products, and unclean water

(1)
• Fungi are eukaryotic and exist in different growth forms in different environments. They range from small single cells such as yeasts (~5um) to large complex structures such as mushrooms (~5cm)
• The high humidity and temperatures often found in bathrooms and kitchens are conducive to fungal growth. Mould, or mildew as it is sometimes referred, likes warmth and moderate to high humidity

(2)
Fungi responsible for human disease can be divided into two distinct morphological forms
• Yeasts which grow as oval or spherical single cells like bacteria and multiply by budding and division
• Filamentous fungi more commonly known as moulds, consist of long, branching hyphae forming a mycelium. Asexual reproduction results in formation of spores

Bud formation Mother
Yeasts - unicellular oval or spherical cells which divide by budding and division
Daughter
Spore Hyphal development
Branched hyphae
Mycelium
Filamentous fungi - branched hyphal structure often pigmented with age. Reproduce by forming large amounts of spores

• They can be responsible for infections
• They can cause an allergic response
• Fungi cause discolouration and deterioration of household surfaces giving the characteristic blackening of walls, tile grouting, plaster and around window frames
• Can cause unpleasant odours which are difficult to disguise. Fungi such as Aspergillus , Penicillium , and produce volatile organic compounds
Alternata have been found to
• Numerous fungi have been found to produce volatile organic compounds (VOC) and it has been suggested that these affect the health of persons living in mouldy houses. Symptoms include headache, eye, nose and throat irritation and fatigue
• VOC’s have been implicated in health issues relating to sick building syndrome
• Spores of toxigenic fungi contain mycotoxins (toxic secondary metabolites). Many fungal spores are small enough to reach the alveoli in the lungs. The mycotoxins may be transported via the blood from the lung to other body sites, possibly causing other effects e.g. skin lesions

Fungi cause 2 types of infection:
• Superficial mycoses
– fungus grows at the body surface in skin, hair and nails
– spread by direct contact, highly contagious and easily spread to others
• e.g. Candida albicans (thrush and nappy rash)
• e.g. dermatophyte fungi: Epidermophyton , Microsporum and
Trichophyton (athlete’s foot)
• Deep mycoses
– involve internal organs, usually life-threatening
– rare except in immunocompromised people
– caused by opportunistic fungi (e.g. Aspergillus )
– acquired by inhalation of spores or by entry through wounds
– some part of the normal body flora and are harmless unless the body’s defences are compromised in some way (e.g.
Candida )

• Allergic rhinitis (hayfever)
• Bronchitis
• Asthma
• Extrinsic allergic alveolitis
Almost all microbial allergens are fungal in origin, with the major ones being Penicillium, Aspergillus, Cladosporium and Alternaria
Asthma can be initiated and provoked by allergens commonly encountered in the general environment, for example pollens
(trees, grass), house dust mites and moulds, e.g. Alternaria alternata , Cladosporium herbatum and Aspergillus fumigatus

What evidence is there for occurrence of fungal contamination in the home?
There have been a number of studies investigating fungi in the home. Fungi isolated include:
• Penicillium spp.
•
•
•
•
•
Cladosporium spp.
Aspergillus spp.
Mycelia sterilia
Rhodotorula (pink yeasts)
Sporobolomyces (yeasts)
Fungi isolated from the air was similar in homes surveyed in
Scotland, Germany, Finland, North America, Taiwan, Canada and
Australia

What is a virus?
• It is not a bacterium
• It is very small, typically 0.1um
• It is not a true cell
• It is not an independently living organism. It must be inside a living cell to replicate
• They have genetic material but lack cell membranes, cytoplasm and machinery
• The virus uses the infected cell's machinery and enzymes to generate virus parts which are later assembled into new virus particles which leave the cell to infect other cells
• It can infect bacteria, fungi, plants, animals and man
• It may remain viable for long time, even in dry conditions
• It can survive but does not grow in food

Classification based on characteristics such as genetic material present (RNA or DNA), symmetry of virus particle and presence or absence of an envelope
Structurally there are 2 distinct types of virus:
Enveloped and Non-Enveloped
Non-enveloped Enveloped
Protein/lipid coat
Envelope
Protein coat
Nucleic acid e.g. poliovirus adenovirus rotavirus e.g. hepatitis B
Polymerase e.g. herpes simplex
HIV
Flu

(1)
Nearly 1000 different types of viruses are known to infect humans and it has been estimated that they account for approx. 60% of human infections. The young, elderly and immuno-compromised are particularly at risk from virus infections
Many viral diseases are well known and easily identified:
• from colds and flu to chicken pox and measles
• from mumps and herpes to polio, hepatitis and HIV

(2)
From the ‘Home Hygiene’ point of view, we are mainly concerned with virus infections relating to poor personal or surface hygiene, and are thus preventable
• Gastrointestinal infections
– Gastroenteritis
– Diarrhoea
– Infectious intestinal disease
• Respiratory infections
– Flu
– Common cold
– Bronchitis

• Rotavirus
– Most important viral cause of diarrhoea in children worldwide
– Infects virtually all children 3-5 years old in developed and developing countries
– Can be asymptomatic excreter
• Small Round Structured Virus (SRSV)
– Play a predominant part in epidemic viral gastroenteritis
– Main symptom is projectile vomiting generating aerosols and virus can be transmitted via aerosols, can contaminate work surfaces with potential for subsequent transfer to food
• Astroviruses and Adenoviruses
– Have been associated with gastroenteritis outbreaks in schools, nursing homes, day-care centres, children’s hospital wards
• Hepatitis A
– Viral hepatitis is most common of the food associated virus diseases, most common vehicle is shellfish
– Easily spread in areas where good personal hygiene is not observed.
– Outbreaks occur in day-care centres, hospitals, nurseries and schools
– Outbreaks may lead to secondary cases in the general community

Viral respiratory infections are common in winter when people are crowded together indoors for longer periods of time, air in illventilated rooms is more humid, favouring survival of suspended enveloped viruses
• Rhinoviruses and coronaviruses together cause more than 50% of common colds can also cause acute bronchitis
• Influenza viruses main cause of flu, can cause acute bronchitis
• Parainfluenza viruses cause of pneumonia in children
• Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) most important cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia in infants major cause of hospital-acquired illness on neonatal wards
• Adenovirus common cause of sore throats and acute bronchitis

(1)
Presence or absence of an envelope is the major structural determinant for mode of transmission
• Non-enveloped viruses most can withstand the acidic environment of the stomach or detergent-like bile of the intestines. Transmitted by respiratory and faecal-oral routes e.g. rotaviruses, SRSV
• Enveloped viruses more fragile, require an intact envelope for infectivity, sensitive to acids and detergents, so not spread via faecal-oral route; spread in respiratory droplets, blood, saliva. e.g. influenza

(2)
Activities of the infected host may increase the efficiency of transmission
• Coughing and sneezing viruses that are better at increasing fluid secretions or irritating respiratory lining will induce more coughing and sneezing increasing efficiency of shedding and transmission
• Diarrhoea eliminates infection more rapidly but is great for contamination of the environment and therefore will spread the microbes
• Projectile vomiting generates aerosols, virus can be transmitted via aerosols, can contaminate work surfaces with potential for subsequent transfer to food

(1)
• Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotes
• Live in water or moist places or other organisms as parasites
• Have a resistant transmissable cyst stage
• Transmission to humans via insect bite or accidental ingestion of infective stages

(2)
•
•
•
•
Cryptosporidium spp. infects the intestines causing Cryptosporidiosis. Large outbreaks are associated with contaminated water or treatment deficiency of water supplies
Giardia lamblia causes giardiasis, an infection of the small intestine, spread via contaminated food and water and by direct person-to-person contact.
Ingestion of one or more cysts may cause disease
Entamoeba histolytica an amoeba infecting the large intestine, causes diarrhoea/dysentery, spread via contaminated water or food
Toxoplasma gondii causes toxoplasmosis, a very severe disease that can produce central nervous system disorders

• Micro-organisms are introduced continually into the home via: people, food, pets, water, insects, air. Wet sites such as sinks, toilets, dishcloths and facecloths can also support microbial growth and themselves become reservoirs of potentially hazardous microorganisms
• Many organisms occurring in the home are of little consequence.
Some organisms have the potential to cause infectious disease
• Some people carry highly pathogenic organisms without themselves being affected - other family members unaware of hazard
• Hands, and a whole range of food and hand contact surfaces, combine to provide transfer routes that can move pathogens around the home and ultimately into the body producing infection
Ingestion of:
• microorganisms - bacteria, viruses, protozoa
• toxins - bacterial, fungal
Inhalation of:
• toxins
• allergens/spores
• microorganisms

Primary sources
Environment
Cleaning aids
Utensils and equipment
People
Pets
Insect
Air
Water
Walls/Ceiling
Toilet
Kitchen
Surface/sink
Skin
Infection
Moulds
Parasites
Risk of health hazard from
Direct
Ingestion
G-bacteria,
Protozoa, viruses
Food
Positioning
Mycotoxins
G-bacteria, viruses
Inhalation
Moulds, viruses,
Legionella,
G+bacteria
Legionella
Moulds
?
G-bacteria
G-bacteria, viruses G-/G+bacteria
G-/G+bacteria,
Listeria
G-/G+bacteria,
Listeria
Dustmites,
Moulds
G-/G+bacteria
Dermatophytes, viruses
Dermatophytes,
Parasites, viruses
Parasites, viruses,
G-bacteria
G-bacteria
G-bacteria, viruses?
G-/G+bacteria,
G-/G+bacteria,
Listeria
G-/G+bacteria,
Listeria
G-bacteria,
Staphylococcus
G-bacteria
G-bacteria
G+bacteria, viruses
Hairfur, viruses?