Anatomy and Physiology Syllabus
Jefferson City High School
Mrs. April Ash, Instructor
2012-2013
I. Course Description
Anatomy and Physiology is an 18 week, advanced, college preparatory class that is designed to prepare students interested
in medicine for a rigorous schedule in a pre-professional college program, or a professional health science program,
including animal or veterinary science; athletic training and sports medicine; speech, occupational, or physical therapy,
nursing, etc. It is also helpful for students who need a knowledge of the human body for such diverse careers as physical
education or computer graphics. This is a laboratory intensive course that will develop a thorough knowledge and
understanding of the anatomy and physiology of human body systems, and the study skills necessary to learn complex
terminology and concepts. An in-depth dissection of a preserved cat is required. Previous or concurrent enrollment in AP
Biology is recommended. Prerequisite: C average in Biology; Chemistry.
II. Course Curricular Objectives
1. Gain a basic understanding of the human body systems and the interactions between the systems.
2. Learn the anatomical structures of the human body systems and their functions.
3. Relate biological concepts at the cellular level to the anatomy and physiology of the human body.
4. Learn to analyze information about the human body and apply it to new situations.
5. Gain an understanding of basic health issues that affect the human body systems.
6. Learn how to memorize information efficiently.
7. Learn how to think spatially in three dimensions.
8. Learn how to successfully take lab practical exams.
9. Learn how to use concept maps to organize information about the human body.
10. Use and/or make models to gain a better understanding of human body systems and their functions.
11. Learn how to dissect a mammal successfully; trace and identify body structures; use an anatomical atlas; and
interrelate the structure and function between body systems on a dissection.
12. Gain a better understanding of different health careers and their requirements.
III. Course Materials



Introduction to the Human Body by Gerald J. Tortora and Sandra Reynolds Grabowski, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
York, 2001.
Hole’s Essentials of Human Anatomy and Phsyiology (Laboratory Manual) by Terry Martin, McGraw Hill Publishers, St.
Louis, 2000.
Other Materials: Students are strongly encouraged to keep a large three-ring notebook. It will contain this syllabus, a
copy of the safety rules, class notes and all assignments. It will be important to review these materials for the semester
exams and to double-check term grades. Students will also need a good set of colored pencils (24 or 36 pencil set) and
may need 3”x5” index cards.
IV. Course Policies
A. Laboratory Work:
Students will be expected to do all lab activities including the dissection of a cat. If a student is absent or does
not complete work in class, he/she must come in before or after school to complete the assignment (this
includes taking any missed group quiz on your own). If lab work is done in pairs or small groups, each individual
is expected to turn in his/her own work unless told otherwise.
B. Homework Policy:
Students will be given homework assignments to practice their skills on a daily basis. These assignments are
crucial for students to expand their understanding, and will give both teacher and student an opportunity to
check comprehension of the material before moving on. Homework assignments will be discussed and checked
the next day in class, giving students the opportunity to ask questions to further increase their understanding.
Each assignment will be collected and recorded as:
10pts – complete (a legitimate attempt must be made on ALL problems assigned)
5pts – partially complete (one or more incomplete problems)
0pts – no assignment
Make-up procedures will follow the policy given in the school handbook. Please come in before or after school
for explanations of assignments.
C. Behavior:
Students will respect the rights of others in the classroom, and the school’s equipment and facilities. For safety
reasons, a student who behaves inappropriately during labs will not be allowed to finish the lab. If horseplay is
involved, the student will be sent to the office.
V. Grading Policy/Assessment
Weighting System for Grade Calculation
70% Tests, quizzes and major lab tests
15% Laboratory work (includes lab work, lab exercises, and quizzes)
5% Homework or daily assignments
10% Comprehensive Term/Semester Exams
Testing:
 If you miss the day before the test, you will be expected to take the test on the test date. In most
cases, you are given a week of notice prior to the scheduled test date.
 Students who score below mastery (80%) on selected learning targets will be allowed to retake test
learning target section(s) before or after school on the teacher scheduled retake day only. When
retaking a learning target section, it is only possible to increase the score to mastery level (80%).
Students must have all homework and lab assignments for that unit fully completed prior to the initial
test day and attend a minimum of one morning Academic Lab to be eligible for the retake. Students
must show up on time with their student ID on the scheduled retake day.
Grading Scale
The Grading Scale for all courses at Jefferson City High School is:
A
93-100%
C
73-76%
A90-92
C70-72
B+
87-89
D+
67-69
B
83-86
D
63-66
B80-82
D60-62
C+
77-79
F
0-59
VI. Course Procedures
 Labs need to be cleaned up appropriately before the bell rings. No late passes will be written.
 Students need to be in their seats at the end of class in order to be dismissed.
VII. Additional Information
First and foremost you should know that I am here to help you! Please do not wait until the point of desperation to get
help. If you need help try to stop in during the school day and make sure I will be here when you want to come by, just in
case we might have meetings or something we need to schedule around. You and your parents are welcome to contact me
through the science department phone at 659-3077 or through email at april.ash@jcschools.us. As teachers, our grading
should be done on a regular basis so I will be able to give you updates on your progress. I encourage you to keep all of your
assignments to compare them to any progress report or check of Infinite Campus. If you find a concern, please come in
before of after school and I will be glad to double-check it. We cannot take up class time for these issues.
Anatomy and Physiology Course Units and Objectives
Course Units:
Organization of the Human Body
Introductory Chemistry
Cells
Tissues
Integumentary System
Skeletal System
The Skull and Joints
Muscular System
Nervous System
Digestive System
Cardiovascular System
Urinary System
Respiratory System
Endocrine System
Unit Objectives:
Note: The bold-faced type are the objectives given in our textbook, Introduction to the Human Body by Tortora and Grabowski, for which students
are responsible. In addition to the textbook objectives, more specific objectives or clarifying notes are given for our specific course at Jefferson City
High School. Correct spelling of the terminology used in this chapter is required, as it is for most chapters. (It is easier to learn the terms correctly
the first time than to have to relearn them later.)
Chapter 1: Organization of the Human Body
The student should be able to:
1. Define anatomy and physiology.
Include:
• Explain the relationship between the structure and the function of a specific body organ or anatomical structure.
2. Describe the structural organization of the human body.
Also include:
• Arrange the different levels of organization (ie., atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, systems, and
organism) in a logical order (ie., from smallest to largest).
• Define and distinguish between the different levels of organization listed above.
• Identify the level of organization for a specific structure.
3. Explain how body systems relate to one another.
Also include:
• Distinguish between the different organ systems in the human body by their function, organs, and functional units.
4. Define the important life processes of humans.
Also include:
• Name characteristics that would distinguish living from nonliving things. (The specific characteristics given in the
book will not necessarily have to be listed.)
• Identify and apply the following terminology: metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, and
reproduction.
• Associate these processes (metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, and reproduction) with
the different body systems.
5. Define homeostasis and explain its importance.
Also include:
• Distinguish between interstitial fluid, extra-cellular fluid (ECF), intracellular fluid (ICF), and cytosol.
• Describe the characteristics and functions of the endocrine and nervous systems and distinguish between the two.
• Distinguish between a sign and a symptom, and give an example of each.
• Explain the relationship between homeostasis and disease.
6. Describe the components of a feedback system (receptor, control center, effector).
Also include:
• Apply this terminology to a specific changing condition caused by a stimulus (i.e., temperature control or blood
pressure) by drawing the diagram of the homeostatic mechanism and explaining how it functions.
7. Compare the operation of negative and positive feedback systems (This means to “compare and contrast” the two types of
feedback systems).
Therefore this also includes:
• Distinguish between negative and positve feedback systems.
• Give an example of each type of feedback.
8. Describe anatomical position.
9. Identify the major regions of the body and relate their common names to the corresponding anatomical terms for the various
body parts.
Also include:
• Define and apply the terminology for the sections: cross-section, oblique section, and longitudinal section.
• Identify and apply the terminology for the body planes: sagittal, midsagittal, coronal (or frontal), transverse, and
oblique planes.
10. Define the directional terms and the anatomical planes and sections used to locate parts of the human body.
Include:
• Identify and appropriately use the directional terms as they apply to the human body (superior-inferior; anteriorposterior; medial-lateral; Ipsilateral-contralateral; proximal-distal; and superficial-deep).
• Explain why these terms are usually relative and make sense only when describing the position of one structure in
relation to another.
• Recognize and correctly use the terms that also refer to a specific region of the body (poterior-anterior, dorsalventral).
• Explain the difference between the directional terms used for four-legged animals and those used for humans.
11. Describe the principal body cavities and the organs they contain.
Specifically:
• Describe and identify the location, contents, and function of the principal (major) body cavities found in the human
body (dorsal: cranial and vertebral; and ventral: thoracic, abdominopelvic, abdominal and pelvic cavities).
• Explain the location of the diaphragm in relation to the major body cavities.
• Distinguish between the three sets of thoracic and abdominopelvic membranes and their associated cavities (the
smaller cavities).
12. Explain why the abdominopelvic cavity is divided into regions. (Quadrants will be omitted for this course.)
• Identify the abdominopelvic regions.
Additional Objectives:
13. Describe the four basic vital signs used to monitor the human body (respiratory rate, pulse, blood pressure, and temperature)
and recognize when they are within normal limits.
Also include:
• Demonstrate correct measurement of the four vital signs.
• Explain what each of the vital signs measures.
14. Describe the effects of exercise on the human body and explain how the homeostatic mechanisms maintain a steady internal
environment during these changes. Explain how the different body systems interact with one another during exercise.
Chapter 2: Introductory Chemistry
Students should be able to:
1. Define a chemical element, atom, ion (cation and anion), molecule, compound and formula unit. (Note: “Formula unit,”as
distinguished from “molecule,” is a term that applies to structural units of ions. It is not found in the textbook, but is taught in
our high school chemistry classes.)
Also:
• Explain the importance of the above terms to the human body and give examples of each, or given an example, be able
to identify it by its appropriate term.
• Identify a chemical formula as a representation of any of the following: atom, molecule, compound, and formula unit.
• Compare the symbol, location, charge and relative mass of each of the three basic types of subatomic particles (protons,
neutrons, and electrons).
• Use the Periodic Table of Elements to determine the atomic number, atomic mass (or mass number), and number of
protons, neutrons, and electrons of any given element.
• Use the Periodic Table of Elements to draw a diagram of an atom illustrating its nucleus, subatomic particles, and
electron shells for any element of atomic number 20 (Calcium) and below.
• List the four most abundant elements of the human body,
• Define and identify an isotope; draw a diagram of an isotope; explain why they are important to medicine.
• Define and distinguish between free radicals and antioxidants, and explain how they effect the health of the human
body; list diseases believed to be caused by free radicals.
2. Explain how chemical bonds form.
Also:
• Identify and distinguish between the three main types of chemical bonds found in the human body: ionic, covalent, and
hydrogen bonds.
• Draw a diagram that illustrates each of three types of bonds.
• Rank each of the three types of bonds in order of their relative strength.
• Explain the importance and location of each of the three types of bonds in the human body.
• Define electrolyte and give examples of why they are important in the human body.
3. Define a chemical reaction and explain why it is important to the human body.
Also:
• Distinguish between synthesis reactions and decomposition reactions and be able to write an chemical equation which
illustrates each and be able to give specific examples of where they would occur in the human body; apply these to the
organic compounds.
• Distinguish between dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions in the human body as they relate to carbohydrates;
apply these specifically to carbohydrates, proteins, and adenosine triphosphate.
4. Discuss the functions of water and inorganic acids, bases, and salts.
Also:
• Distinguish between polar and nonpolar bonds. Describe how polar bonds effect the orientation and function of water
molecules.
• Describe the 5 properties of water as given in the textbook, and provide specific examples of how they apply to the
human body.
• Give examples of some of the effects of water on the health of the human body. (These will be researched on the
internet.)
• Distinguish between acids, bases, and salts, and give examples of where each is important in the human body.
5. Define pH and explain how the body attempts to keep pH within the limits of homeostasis.
Also:
• Diagram the pH scale; indicate where neutral, acidic and basic (alkaline) pHs are located on the scale; identify the
relative strength of acids and bases on the pH scale.
• Explain the meaning of the numbers on the pH scale, and the difference in magnitude between the numbers.
Organic Chemistry
• Identify and distinguish between the four main types of organic compounds (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
acids) by their structure and function in the human body.
6. Discuss the functions of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
Also:
Carbohydrates
• Distinguish between the three major groups of carbohydrates by their structure and function.
• Recognize a compound as a sugar when its name is seen in print.
Lipids
• Distinguish between the following lipids by their structure and their function: triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, fatty
acids, and fat soluble vitamins.
• Identify and/or draw simple structural models of a triglyceride and a phospholipid which include their component parts:
glycerol, fatty acids, and in a phospholipid, the phosphate group.
• Compare and contrast saturated and unsaturated fats.
• Explain the importance of trans fats to the health of the human body.
• Draw a transverse section of a cell membrane and label and define the following parts: hydrophobic, hydrophilic,
phosphate heads and fatty acid tails.
Proteins
• Define and identify the following terms referring to proteins: amino acid, peptide, polypeptide, peptide bond.
• Explain: the importance of shape to a protein; the effects denaturation and its causes; the significance homeostasis to
protein shape.
• Define and describe what an enzyme is and how they function; draw and label a diagram of the lock and key model of
how enzymes function.
• Recognize a molecule is an enzyme by its printed name.
• Describe the three properties of enzymes (specificity, efficiency and control).
7. Explain the importance of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Also:
Nucleic Acids
• Describe the structure and function of nucleic acids.
• Draw and label structural diagrams of DNA, mRNA, and tRNA.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
• Describe the structure and function of ATP.
• Identify and/or draw a simple structural model of ATP that includes adenine, ribose, adenosine and the three phosphate
groups.
Chapter 3: Cells
Students should be able to:
1. Name and describe the three major parts of a cell (plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus).
2. Describe the structure and function of the plasma membrane.
Also:
• Explain the “Fluid Mosaic Model” of the plasma membrane; include why they refer to the plasma membrane as “fluid”
and why do they refer to it as a “mosaic.”
• Draw and label a cross-section of a plasma membrane and include the following: lipid bilayer, phospholipid, phosphate
head, fatty acid tails, hydrophobic region, hydrophilic region, integral proteins, glycolipids and glycoproteins,
cholesterol, the cell’s internal and external sides of the plasma membrane.
• Explain the meaning of the statement: “Most functions of the plasma membrane depend on the types of proteins that
are present; list and explain the functions of the following membrane proteins: channels, transporters, receptors,
enzymes, cell identity markers, and linkers.
3. Describe the processes that transport substances across the plasma membrane.
• Identify and distinguish between intracellular fluid (ICF), extracellular fluid (ECF), interstitial fluid, and cytosol.
• Define the following vocabulary terms: solute, solvent, solution, hypotonic, isotonic, hypertonic, concentration gradient.
Apply these terms to the functioning of the human body.
• Describe how different factors affect the rate of diffusion across the plasma membrane.
• Define and distinguish between the following types of cell transport: passive transport, simple diffusion, facilitated
diffusion, osmosis, active transport, vesicular (bulk) transport, endocytosis, exocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis. Note:
“Secondary active transport” will not be covered in this course.
• Identify how different types of substances (such as: lipid soluble substances, small molecules, water, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, glucose, fat soluble vitamins, polar molecules, ions, large proteins, bacteria, other cells, etc.) cross the plasma
membranes, either through the lipid bilayer, by membrane proteins, or by vesicular (bulk) transport.
• Describe the purpose of the sodium potassium pump, and explain in detail the sequence of how the sodium potassium
functions.
4. Describe the structure and functions of cytoplasm, cytosol, and organelles .
• Also identify the all cell organelles by description and from a diagram. Peroxisomes will not be included.
5. Describe the structure and functions of the nucleus.
• Also distinguish between chromosomes, chromatin, and sister chromatids.
6. Outline the sequence of events involved in protein synthesis (using the appropriate terminology).
• Also distinguish between the location and function of transcription and translation.
Chapter 4: Tissues
Students should be able to:
1. Describe the characteristics of the four basic types of tissue that make up the human body.
Also:
• Describe the basic functions of the four basic types of tissue that make up the human body (epithelial tissue, connective
tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue).
• Identify specific cells found in each type of tissue, when given (goblet cell, adipocyte, fibroblast, chondrocyte, osteocyte,
erythrocyte, leukocyte, thrombocyte, muscle fiber, neuron, and neuroglia).
• Describe the structure and function of different types of cell junctions.
2. Describe the general features of epithelial tissue and the structure, location, and function of the various types of epithelia.
(Simple squamous epithelium, simple cuboidal epithelium, simple columnar epithelium, stratified squamous epithelium
(nonciliated only), transitional epithelium, and pseudostratified columnar epithelium.)
3. Describe the general features of connective tissue and the structure, location, and function of the various types of connective
tissue. (Areolar connective tissue, adipose tissue, dense regular connective tissue (fibrous tissue), dense irregular connective
tissue, hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage (fibrous cartilage), elastic cartilage, compact bone, and blood.)
4. Describe the general features of muscle tissue, and contrast the structure, location, and mode of control of the three types of
muscle tissue (skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle).
Note: This will include the location, function, nervous control (voluntary or involuntary), appearance (striated or not), basic cell
shape (cylindrical, branched, spindle shaped), number of nuclei, speed and duration of contraction, and any unique
characteristics (i.e., cardiac muscle has intercalated discs).
5. Describe the structural features and functions of nervous tissue.
Also:
• Compare and contast the structure and function of neurons and neuroglia.
• Draw and label a diagram of a typical motor neuron and include: the cell body, nucleus, dendrites, axon, axon terminals,
and the direction of the flow of the impulse (or action potential).
6. This will be covered in Chapter 5 Integumentary System: Define a membrane and describe the classification of membranes.
7. Omit
8. Omit
Chapter 5: Integumentary System
Students should be able to:
1. Describe the structure and functions of the skin.
Include:
• List the functions of skin and the subcutaneous layer, and identify the structures that perform each function.
• Identify and label the basic layers and structures in a diagram, microscope slide, or model of skin and the subcutaneous
layer.
• Identify and label the five specific layers of the epidermis on a diagram; distinguish between the functions and locations
of the stratum corneum and the stratum basale (s. germinativum); identify and label the stratum corneum and stratum
basale on a microscope slide or model of skin.
• Describe the process and function of skin growth and keratinization.
• Compare and contrast the characteristics, structures, and functions of the two layers of skin plus the subcutaneous layer.
• Define and distinguish between the extensibility and elasticity of skin.
2. Explain the pigments involved in skin color.
Also:
• Identify the location and function of melanocytes.
• Describe the process and function of tanning.
• Compare and contrast the skin of different human races.
3. Describe the structure and functions of hair, skin glands, and nails.
Also:
• Draw and label a hair and its associated structures (shaft, root, hair follicle, bulb, papilla of the hair, matrix, arrector pili
muscle, and sebaceous glands).
• Draw and label a diagram of a fingernail and its associated structures.
• Explain the growth process of hair and fingernails.
• Compare and contrast the location, structure, function, and secretions of sweat glands and sebaceous glands.
• Explain what causes acne (pimples and blackheads).
• Compare and contrast apocrine and eccrine sweat glands.
4. Omit
5. Explain how the skin helps regulate body temperature.
Also:
• Draw a diagram of the homeostatic mechanism for regulating body temperature. Include the stimulus, the three
components, and a description of how the process functions.
In addition:
Glands:
• Draw a concept map of the different types of glands present in the human body (endocrine, exocrine, merocrine,
apocrine and holocrine); give examples of each type of gland; compare and contrast endocrine and exocrine glands.
Cancer and Skin Cancer:
• Define the basic terminology associated with cancer (see page 65): cancer, benign tumor, malignant tumor, metastasis,
oncology, and mutation.
• List the seven warning signs of cancer.
• Compare and contrast the three types of skin cancer: squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, and melanoma.
Include their causes, symptoms, prognosis, and relative occurence (see page 110 and handouts).
• Explain the relationship between tanning and skin cancer; list ways to prevent skin cancer.
• Discuss the pros and cons of the use of tanning beds.
• Describe the ABCD method for detecting skin cancer in moles.
Define a membrane and describe the classification of membranes ( mucous membrane, serous membrane, synovial
membrane, and cutaneous membrane). This is from Chapter 4, page 93-94.
Also:
• Compare and contrast the four types of membranes by their location, function and type of secretions.
Chapter 6: The Skeletal System
The student should be able to:
1. Discuss the functions of bone and the skeletal system.
2. Classify bones on the basis of their shape and location (long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid bones).
3. Describe the parts of a long bone.
Also:
• Draw and label the parts on a long bone. Include: the epiphysis, diaphysis, spongy bone, compact bone, periosteum,
endosteum, medullary cavity, articular cartilage, red bone marrow, yellow bone marrow, and epiphyseal plate or line.
4. Describe the histological features of compact and spongy bone.
Also:
• Compare and contrast spongy and compact bone. Include their histological characteristics, location, and function.
• Identify and describe the structures and organization of an osteon.
• Distinguish between the four types of bones cells, their location and their function.
• Distinguish between the characteristics, location and function of red and yellow bone marrow.
5. Explain the steps involved in ossification.
Include only:
• Describe the difference between endochondral and intramembranous ossification and give an example of a bone made
by each process.
• Describe the steps in endochondral ossification.
6. Describe the factors involved in bone growth and maintenance and how hormones regulate calcium homeostasis.
Include:
• Explain the importance of the bone remodeling process.
• Describe the processes of bone formation and resorption.
• List the factors involved in normal bone metabolism.
• Name important body processes that depend on the presence of calcium to function normally.
• Compare and contrast the homeostatic mechanisms that increase blood calcium with those that decrease blood calcium.
Also:
• Describe the steps involved in bone repair after a break. (Not in the textbook.)
7. Describe how exercise and mechanical stress affect bone tissue.
Also:
• Describe the causes, prevention and effects of osteoporosis.
8. Describe (identify and/or match) the principal surface markings on bones and the function of each.
Also:
• Distinguish between the terms used to describe bone structures, such as fossa, condyle, epicondyle, foramen, fossa, etc.
9. Classify the bones of the body into axial and appendicular divisions.
10 and 11. Omit
Note: These will be covered in their own separate unit.
12. Identify the regions and normal curves of the vertebral column and describe its structural and functional features. ( See the
responsibility list.)
Also:
• Identify the structures on a vertebra or on a group of vertebrae from a diagram and from an actual bone.
• Compare and contrast the different types of vertebrae: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, and coccyx.
13-17. Identify the bones of the body and their principal markings. ( See the responsibility list.)
18. Identify the principal structural differences between female and male skeletons.
19. Omit
Chapter 6, 7: The Skull and Joints
The student should be able to:
(Chapter 6 The Skull)
10. Name the cranial and facial bones and indicate their locations and major structural features.
• Identify the bones and their structures on skulls or separate bones or parts of skulls.
11. Describe the relationship of the hyoid to the skull.
(Chapter 7 The Joints)
1. Define a joint and describe how the structure of a joint determines its function.
2. Describe the structural and functional classes of joints.
• Structural: All synovial joints, cartilaginous joints, Fibrous Joints (suture only), Cartilaginous Joints (Symphyses only)
• Functional: Diarthrosis, Amphiarthrosis, Synarthrosis
3. Describe the structure and functions of the three types of fibrous joints.
REVISED: The suture is the only fibrous joint that will be included in this course.
4. Describe the structure and functions of the two types of cartilaginous joints.
REVISED: The symphysis is the only cartilaginous joint that will be included in this course. The epiphyseal plate will also be
included, but its specific term (synchondrosis) will not.
5. Describe the structure and the six subtypes of synovial joints. [Planar (gliding) joint, hinge joint, pivot joint, condyloid joint,
saddle joint, and ball-and-socket joint.]
Also:
• Draw and label a basic synovial joint and its associated structures.
6. Describe the movements that can occur at synovial joints.
Include:
• Describe the movement of each of the types of joints listed above.
• Identify or match the specific term for a type of joint movement with its description of movement. Joint movements
included are: flexion, extension, hyperextension; abduction and adduction; circumduction and rotation; elevation and
depression; protraction and retraction; inversion and eversion; dorsiflexion and plantar flexion; supination and
pronation.
7. Describe the principal structures and functions of the knee joint.
Also:
• Identify the structures of the knee from a diagram or model.
8. Omit
Chapter 8: The Muscular System
Students should be able to:
1. Describe the types, functions, and characteristics of muscle tissue.
Also:
• Compare and contrast the three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle.
Note: This will include the location, function, nervous control (voluntary or involuntary), appearance (striated or not),
basic cell shape (cylindrical, branched, spindle shaped), number of nuclei, speed and duration of contraction, ability to
regenerate, and any unique characteristics (i.e., cardiac muscle has intercalated discs).
• List and describe the five basic functions of muscle tissue.
• List and define the four characteristics of muscle tissue: excitability, contractility, extensibility, and elasticity.
2. Explain the relation of connective tissue components, blood vessels, and nerves to skeletal muscles.
Also::
• Describe the organization of muscle tissue from the gross to the molecular level.
• Identify the connective tissue and structural components of muscle on a diagram.
3. Describe the histology of a skeletal muscle cell.
Also:
• Compare and contrast the organelles and parts of a generic cell with those of a muscle fiber (cell).
• Make a model of a sarcomere; identify the structures, bands and zones at the sarcomere level; explain what happens to
each of these elements during muscle contraction and relaxation.
• Draw and label a sarcomere that is contracted and one that is relaxed; include: thick filaments (myosin), thin filaments
(mainly actin), z discs, m line, sarcomere, A band, I band, H zone, zone of overlap.
4. Explain how skeletal muscle fibers contract and relax.
Also:
• Name the three parts of the neuromuscular junction; draw and label a diagram of the neuromuscular junction, include:
the axon terminal and the synaptic end bulb of the neuron, the muscle fiber, motor end plate, synaptic cleft, synaptic
vesicle, acetylcholine, receptors and the direction of the impulse (action potential).
• Explain the Sliding Filament Mechanism.
• Explain the process of contraction and relaxation including:
1) How the nervous system communicates with the muscle fiber at the neuromuscular junction;
2) What happens between the neuromuscular junction and the sarcomere;
3) How the contraction cycle achieves contraction and relaxation of the muscle fiber.
Note: although it is important to know how the myosin binding sites are opened, the students are not
required to know the names of the specific proteins involved (troponin and tropomyosin).
• Define and describe what causes muscle tone; explain the importance of muscle tone.
5. Describe the sources of ATP and oxygen for muscle contraction.
6. Define muscle fatigue and list its possible causes.
7. List the reasons that oxygen consumption is higher after exercise than at rest.
8. Explain the three phases of a twitch contraction.
9. Describe how frequency of stimulation and motor unit recruitment affect muscle tension.
10. Compare the three types of skeletal muscle fibers.
Note: Only two of the three types of fibers will be included in this course: Slow oxidative fibers (“slow twitch” fibers) and
fast glycolytic fibers (“fast twitch” fibers).
Included:
• Compare and contrast the fast and slow twitch fibers according to their structure, function, and how they are affected by
exercise.
11. Distinguish between isotonic and isometric contractions.
12. Describe the effects of exercise on skeletal muscle tissue.
Note: This will be covered in objective 10 above.
13. Omit
14. Describe the structure and function of cardiac muscle tissue.
Note: This is already included in the first objective for this chapter.
15. Describe the structure and function of smooth muscle tissue.
Note: This is already included in the first objective for this chapter.
16. Describe how skeletal muscles cooperate to produce movement.
Included:
• Distinguish between a muscle’s origin, insertion, and belly; distinguish between the an agonist (or prime mover) and an
antagonist, and apply these terms to specific muscles; define the action of a synergist and a fixator.
Also:
• Identify or match the specific term for a type of joint movement with its description of movement, and apply these
terms to the actions of specific muscles. Joint movements included are: flexion, extension, hyperextension; abduction
and adduction; circumduction and rotation; elevation and depression; protraction and retraction; inversion and
eversion; dorsiflexion and plantar flexion; supination and pronation.
17. List and describe several ways that skeletal muscles are named.
Note: This objective will not be tested directly. It will be helpful to students when trying to learn the different cat and human
body muscles and their actions.
18. Describe the location of skeletal muscles in various regions of the body and identify their functions.
Also:
• Identify and give the function for all cat muscles on a given responsibility list.
• Identify and give the function for all human body muscles on a given responsibility list. (The muscles will need to be
identified from diagrams and/or models.)
Chapters 9,10, 11: The Nervous System
The student should be able to:
(Chapter 9: Nervous Tissue)
1. Describe the components of the nervous system. p. 218
Include:
• Explain the difference in the endocrine and the nervous systems. (p. 218 and p. 304)
• Identify the three basic functions of the nervous system (sensory, integrative, motor). (p. 218)
• Trace the path of a nerve impulse from the sensory receptor to the effector. (Notes, p.218)
• Draw a concept map of the two subsystems and their divisions. Include the organs in each and whether they are
involuntary or voluntary.
• Define and distinguish between basic terminology: neuron, neuroglia, nerve fiber, nerve, nerve tract, ganglion, gray
matter, white matter, mixed nerve, sensory neuron, motor neuron.
2. Compare the structure and functions of neurons and neuroglia. p. 220
Include:
• Draw and label a typical motor neuron with myelin sheath. (Include: dendrites, axon, cell body with nucleus and
axon hillock, Schwann cells, nodes of Ranvier, axon terminals, synaptic end bulbs, and the direction of impulse flow.
(What does an axon attach to? a dendrite?)
• Distinguish between unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar neurons.
• Distinguish between neurons and neuroglia.
• Identfiy the following neuroglia and their functions: Schwann cells, oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, microglia.
3. Describe how a nerve impulse is generated and conducted. p. 222
Include:
• Describe the difference in an electrical current and an ionically charged current. (p.222)
• Describe in detail nerve impulse conduction in a neuron, and across a synapse. Be able to identify events on a graph
of an action potential. Explain the affect of a myelinated sheath on nerve transmission.
4. Explain the events of synaptic transmission and the types of neurotransmitters used. p. 225
Include:
• Draw, label and describe the transmission of a nerve impulse across a synapse.
• Be able to identify the following neurotransmitters and their functions: dopamine as an inhibitory neurotransmitter;
acetycholine as an excitory neurotransmitter; serotonin is the “feel good” neurotransmitter; endorphins as the
body’s natural pain killers; norepinephrine and epinephrine.
• Describe neuron integration and its importance (include convergence and divergence). (notes and handouts only)
(Chapter 10: Central and Somatic Nervous Systems)
1. Describe how the spinal cord is protected. p. 234
2. Describe the structure and functions of the spinal cord. p.234
Include:
• Name and give the location and function of each of the three meninges. (p. 234)
• Identify the location of the spinal cord within the vertebral column. (p. 234)
• Draw and label the parts of a cross-section of the spinal cord, and/or identify these structures on a microscope slide,
a picture, and/or a diagram of a microscopic cross-section of the spinal cord. (p. 236, Figures 10.3, 10.6)
• Define and describe the importance of a reflex arc. Identify the neuro-pathway of a reflex and describe an example.
3. Describe the composition, coverings, and branches of a spinal nerve. p.239
Students are only responsible for the “Compostion and Covering” section only. Include:
• Identify and label a spinal nerve, its posterior and anterior roots, and its composition (the types of neurons present in
each). (p. 239, Figure 10.6, p. 236, Figure 10.3
• Students will make a 3-dimensional model of a spinal cord icluding the structures shown in Figure 10.3 (p.236) and
present their models orally.
4. Omit
5. Name the principal parts of the brain and explain the function of each. p.241
Include:
• Identify and locate these principal parts of the brain on a sheep brain and/or a diagram of the brain.
• Identify and describe the meninges of the brain and compare them with those of the spinal cord. (p. 243, Figure
10.8, p. 234 and Figure 10.1)
• Explain the importance of the blood-brain barrier for health and medical treatment. (p.243)
• Identify and explain the location and function of the four lobes, and the primary sensory and motor areas of each.
• Demonstrate cross-lateralization of the brain. (p.250-251)
• Recognize the limbic system’s location and function as the “emotional brain” and its importance in learning and
memory. (p.248, and 251-252)
6. Identify the 12 pairs of cranial nerves by name, number, type, location, and function. p.252
Include:
• Identify the location and the name of the following cranial nerves on the sheep brain: olfactory bulb, optic nerve (and
optic chiasma, optic tract), oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, accessory, and hypoglossal.
• Match all the cranial nerves with their basic function as given in class.
(Chapter 11: Autonomic Nervous System)
1. Compare the main structural and functional differences between the somatic and autonomic parts of the nervous system.
p.262
• Distingish between the autonomic nervous sustem (ANS) and the somatic nervous system(SNS) by their structure
and functions. (p. 262-263, Figure 11.1, and Table 11.1)
2. Identify the structural features of the autonomic nervous system. p. 262
Include:
• Explain how the differences in the structures of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions reflect their
differences in their functions. (notes, p. 266)
3. Describe the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. p. 266
Include:
• List how the body responds to a situation which requires a “Fight-or-Flight”response. (p. 267 and Table 11.3)
• List how the body responds to a situation which requires a “Rest-and-Digest” response. (p. 268 and Table 11.3)
• Identify the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions given how the body responds to a given situation.
Chap 19: The Digestive System
Students should be able to:
1. Identify the organs of the digestive system and their basic functions.
Also:
• Distinguish between the organs of the gastrointestinal track and the accessory organs.
• Identify the functions of the digestive system: ingestion, secretion, mixing and propulsion, digestion, absorption, and
defecation. (p. 458 - 459; and Figure 19.1)
• Distinguish between mechanical and chemical digestion and gives examples of each process in the digestive system.
• Dissect a cat to expose the structures of the digestive system in order to: describe the processes of digestion, identify
the organs involved, their structures and functions.
• Identify the organs and structures involved in the digestive processes in humans in writing or from diagrams,
photographs, etc.
• Explain which organic compounds each organ digests and how the process is accomplished. Be able to trace the
digestive process for a specific food and explain how the body digests and processes the nutrients and wastes present.
• Describe the role of enzymes in the process of digestion: what the enzymes are, where they are produced and where
they function, what their substrate(s) is(are), and what their product(s) is(are).
• Describe the role of hormones in the communication process between organs during digestion. Identify the hormones of
the stomach, and small intestine, what stimulates them to action, where they are produced, what their target cells are,
and what action they accomplish in digestion.
2. Omit: Describe the layers that form the wall of the gastrointestinal tract.
(Mouth, Parynx, and Esophagus)
3. Describe the structure and functions of the tongue (lingual frenulum, papillae, and taste buds).
• Also identify the structures and functions of the mouth and their functions (oral or buccal cavity, lips, oral cavity proper,
vestibule, fauces, labial frenulum, hard palate, soft palate, uvula, and palatine tonsil)
4. Identify the locations of the salivary glands, and describe the functions of their secretions.
• Also compare and contrast the chemical components and the functions of the salivary secretions of the three types of
salivary glands.
5. Identify the parts of a typical tooth (crown, neck, root, gingiva, enamel, dentin, pulp cavity, root canal, nerve and blood vessels),
and compare deciduous and permanent dentitions.
• Also distinguish between the different types of teeth: deciduous, permanent, incisors, cuspids (canines), premolars, and
molars.
6-12. Describe the location, structure, and function of the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver and gall bladder, the
small intestine, and the large intestine.
Pharynx and Esophagus
• Describe the process of swallowing and its three stages using the correct anatomical terms.
Stomach
• Identify the symptoms and cause of heartburn and ulcers.
• Identify the different anatomical regions of the stomach.
• Describe the main substances in gastric juice, where they are from, and what they do.
• Describe the regulation of digestion in the stomach.
Gall Bladder and Liver
• Describe where bile is made and stored, how it is delivered to the small intestine; and what its function is in the process
of digestion.
• Identify the hormones that stimulate these processes to occur.
Pancreas
• Identify the ingredients in pancreatic juice, to where and how they are delivered; and what their actions are.
Small Intestine
• Identify the enzymes provided by the small intestine to the digestive process; their function, their substrates, and the
resulting products.
• Explain the importance of villi and microvilli to the process of absorption.
• Distinguish between the ways in which nutrients are absorbed: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
Large Intestine
• Identify the processes of digestion that take place here and describe the role of bacteria in those processes.
13. Omit: List the factors that regulate food intake.
14. Omit: Describe the effects of aging on the digestive system.
Chapter 14, 15, 16: Cardiovascular System
Students should be able to:
Chapter 14 Cardiovascular System: Blood
1. List and describe the functions of the blood.
2. Omit
3. Discuss the formation, components, and functions of whole blood.
• Students should know the three basic types of blood cells and their characteristics and functions.
4. Omit
5. Describe the ABO and Rh blood groups.
Chapter 15 Cardiovascular System: Heart
1. Describe the location of the heart and the structure and function of the pericardium.
2. Describe the layers of the heart wall and the chambers of the heart.
3. Identify the major blood vessels that enter and exit the heart.
4. Describe the structure and functions of the valves of the heart.
5. Explain how blood flows through the heart.
6. Describe the clinical importance of the blood supply of the heart.
7. Explain how each heartbeat is initiated and maintained.
8. Describe the meaning and diagnostic value of an electrocardiogram.
9. Describe the phases of the cardiac cycle.
10. Define cardiac output, explain how it is calculated, and describe how it is regulated.
11. Explain the relationship between exercise and the heart.
Chapter 16 Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation
1. Compare the structure and functions of the different types of blood vessels.
2. Explain how substances enter and leave the blood in the capillaries.
3. Explain how venous blood returns to the heart.
4. Define blood pressure and describe how it varies throughout the systemic circulation.
5. Identify factors that affect blood pressure and vascular resistance.
6. Omit
7. Explain how pulse and blood pressure are measured.
8. Omit
9. Compare the major routes that blood takes through various regions of the body.
10. Omit
Chapter 21: Urinary System
Students should be able to:
1. List the functions of the kidney.
2. Describe the structure and blood supply of the kidney.
Include:
• Describe the location and interrelationships of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
• Identify the structures of a kidney on a diagram, model, and/or dissection.
• Describe the path of urine through the kidney and other urinary system structures.
• Describe the structure and function of the renal corpuscle and its associated blood vessels.
• Describe the structure of a nephron, including the structures of the renal corpuscle and the renal tubule [the proximal
convoluted tubule, Loop of Henle (descending and ascending limbs), distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct].
3. Describe how the kidneys filter the blood and regulate its volume, chemical composition, and pH.
Include:
• Distinguish between the three basic processes performed by the kidneys: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and
tubular secretion.
• Describe the mechanisms for controlling the glomerular filtration rate: the action of the smooth muscles of the
arterioles, the action of the juxtaglomerular apparatus (and its homeostatic mechanism), hormonal regulation, and
neural regulation.
• Explain what happens to the glomerular filtrate as it passes through the different parts of the nephron.
Chapter 18: Respiratory System
Students should be able to:
1. Describe the structure and functions of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
2. Omit
3. Explain how inhalation and exhalation take place.
4. Explain how oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between alveolar air and blood (external respiration) and between
blood and body cells (internal respiration).
5. Describe how the blood transports oxygen and carbon dioxide.
6. Describe the effects of exercise on the respiratory system.
Chapter 13: Endocrine System
Endocrine concepts will be covered with related systems.
Revised Dec 2010