Learning
C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 1 of 8
Operational Definitions

Learning
o A relatively ______________ change in behavior (or behavior potential) due to
experience

Behaviorism
o Research on learning has been influenced by this approach to psychology that
emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the _____________
as a determinant of behavior

Conditioning
o The association between environmental stimuli and the organisms responses
Section One:
Classical Conditioning
S–R Learning

Classical conditioning
o The most basic form of learning; one stimulus comes to serve as a __________
for the occurrence of a second stimulus (the response)

Stimulus
o A physical event capable of affecting behavior

Very common type of learning, may play a role in everything from fears to racial
prejudice
Pavlov & Classical Conditioning

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
o Russian physiologist and Nobel Prize winner
o Decided to be a scientist after reading the works of Charles Darwin

Most famous for his work on the digestion of the dog, which included the first work on
classical conditioning
The Experiment

C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 2 of 8
Pavlov was researching the digestive process in dogs, when he came upon an
interesting phenomenon

He would ring a bell at the same time as he was serving the dogs food; eventually, the
dogs began to drool at just the ________________

One stimulus became paired with another, one signaling the coming of the other
New Reflexes from Old

Unconditioned stimulus (US)
o Elicits a response in the absence of learning

Unconditioned response (UR)
o The reflexive response to a stimulus in the absence of learning

New Reflexes from Old
o A neutral stimulus is then regularly paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned stimulus (CS)
o An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after
being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned response (CR)
o Response to the CS
The Principles

Acquisition is the process by which a CS acquires the ability to elicit a CR
o Happens through repeated ________________ of US with CS
o Affected by the number of US-CS pairings, the timing of those pairings, the
intensity of the US or CS, and familiarity of the stimuli

Extinction
o Process by which a CS _____________ the ability to elicit CR because it is no
longer followed by the US
o Not a perfect process, events such as reconditioning and spontaneous recovery
hinder the extinction of CR
C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 3 of 8
Higher-Order Conditioning

A neutral stimulus becomes a CS by being paired with an CS

Can be implicated in learning prejudices
o Negative label applied to some group
o Label people at UCA “Conwayians”
o Then, pair Conwayians with “retards” or “hicks”
o Pretty soon, anyone from UCA is a retard or hick

Stimulus generalization – the tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke CR
o Have one awesome bald, bearded teacher, so you seek out other bald, bearded
teachers

Stimulus discrimination – the process by which we learn to respond to certain stimuli
but not to others
o You learn that not all bald, bearded teachers are awesome
Section Two:
Classical Conditioning in Real Life
Learning to Like

Why are pretty things paired with things people want to sell you?
Learning to Fear

You can condition fears just as easily as likes

Counterconditioning
o Pairing a CS with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with an
unwanted conditioned response
Section Three:
C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 4 of 8
Operant Conditioning
Operational Definition

Operant conditioning – process where you learn to repeat behaviors that yield positive
outcomes or permit them to avoid or escape negative outcomes

In other words, the chance that a behavior will occur depends on the
______________________ that follow

These chances can be increased by reinforcement or decreased by punishment
B.F. Skinner

Followed up on Watson and Thorndike’s work on behavior

Next to Freud, probably the most influential psychologist
Consequences

A neutral consequence _______________ increases or decreases the probability that
the response will recur

Reinforcement ________________ the response or makes it more likely to recur

Punishment _________________ a response or makes it less likely to recur
Increasing Behavior

Reinforcement
o Applying or removing a stimulus to increase the strength of a specific behavior

Positive reinforcers
o Stimuli that strengthen responses that precede them
o There are primary (food, water) and secondary reinforcers (money, praise)

Negative reinforcers
o Stimuli that strengthen responses that cause avoidance of those stimuli
Decreasing Behavior

Punishment
C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 5 of 8
o Applying or removing a stimulus decreases the strength of a behavior

Positive punishment
o Occurs when behaviors are followed by _____________ stimuli called punishers

Negative punishment
o Occurs when behaviors are linked to loss of potential reinforcers
Increasing behavior examples

Positive reinforcer – you get candy when you answer questions, so you answer more
questions

Negative reinforcer – you lose points when you don’t come to class, so you show up
more often
Negative vs. Positive Reinforcement

Positive punishment – you sleep in class and get yelled at by the mean teacher

Negative punishment – since you didn’t go to class, you missed out on drinking from
the fountain of knowledge that is Caleb
The Principles

Shaping
o Closer and closer ___________________ to desired behavior are required for
positive reinforcement to be given

Chaining
o A sequence of responses must be followed to gain a reward

Stimulus generalization
o Stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus are more likely to ____________
a response

Stimulus discrimination
o The tendency of a response to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not
another
C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 6 of 8
The Schedules

There are different schedules of reinforcement used in operant conditioning

These schedules are rules determining ____________ and ___________
reinforcements will be delivered

Continuous reinforcement
o _____________ occurrence of a behavior is reinforced
o Useful for strengthening new behavior


Every time you raise your hand in class, you get some candy
Fixed-interval
o A specific interval of _________ must elapse before a response will yield
reinforcement


Such as a studying schedule
Variable-interval
o A variable amount of time must elapse before a response will be reinforced


Surprise inspections at workplace
Fixed-ratio
o Reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of _______________ have
occurred


Being paid for each license plate you stamp
Variable-ratio
o Reinforcement occurs only after a variable number of responses have been
performed

Slot machines and other games of chance
Superstitious Learning

The subjective experience of learning is compelling, but the ________________
between actions and outcomes are misindentified

Any sports players out there have lucky hats, underwear, socks?

Any other examples you can think of?
C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 7 of 8
Biological Constraints

Principles of operant and classical conditioning operate are limited by an animal’s
genetic predispositions and physical characteristics
o You can’t train a fish to climb a ladder!
Section Four:
Operant Conditioning in Real Life
Conditioning in Life

Behavior modification
o The application of operant conditioning techniques to

Teach new responses

Reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior
o Also called applied behavior analysis

Used in hospitals, classrooms, athletics, prisons, factories, offices, and more!
When Punishment Works

_____________________ punishing a self-destructive behavior eliminates it

Milder punishments appear to work as well as harsh ones

Consistency is important
When Punishment Fails

People often administer punishment inappropriately

The recipient responds with anxiety, fear, or rage

The effectiveness is often _______________

Most misbehavior is hard to punish immediately

Punishment conveys little information

An action intended to punish may instead be reinforcing
Misuse of Rewards

Rewards must be tied to the behavior you want to _________________
o Don’t praise mediocre work!

C. Lack, Ph.D.
PSY 2003
Chapter 8 Outline
Page 8 of 8
Good rewarders have to understand types of reinforcers
External & Internal Reinforcers

External reinforcers
o Reinforcers that are not ___________ related to the activity being reinforced

Internal reinforcers
o Reinforcers that are inherently related to the activity being reinforced

External reinforcers may undermine internal reinforcers
Section Five:
Social-Cognitive Learning Theories
Operational Definition

Social cognitive theories emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained through:
o Observation and imitation of others
o Positive consequences
o ___________________ processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs
Learning from Others

Observational learning
o The acquisition of new behavior, information, or concepts through exposure to
others and the consequences they experience

Can occur from parent to child, amongst peers, or from viewing media

Depends on multiple factors
S-C Theories and Violence

The following intervene in the relationship between what we see, what we learn, and
how we respond:
o Perceptions
o Interpretations
o Personality dispositions (aggressiveness, sociability)