Wednesday, November 19, 2003
Plantae
- Eukaryotes and multicellular
- Photosynthetic - autotrophs, heterotrophs, few venus fly traps, sun dews and pitcher plants
- Chlorophyll A – primary photosynthetic pigment
o Other pigments including chlorophyll B, xanthephylls, anthophylls, and carotenes
Dichotomous – break into two groups based on a question
Dichotomous keys – helps identify an organism
Vascular system of plants
- carries water and nutrients to various cells in the plant body
- phloem – sends nutrients down from the leaves
- xylem – sends water up from the roots
nonvascular plants
- division byrophyta – mosses
- mosses must stay moist in order to live and reproduce
- sphagnum moss - produce a molecule known as dehydrin to allow it to withstand dry times
Gametophyte – haploid adult, produces gametes by mitosis
- fertilize a diploid zygote
sporophyte – adult diploid, produces spores by meiosis
gametophyte is the dominant plant, non-seed producing
seed – embryonic sporophyte plant whose development stops temporarily and is enclosed by a protective
casing
moss life cycle
female moss – archegonium at tip – contains an egg
male moss – antheridium at the tip – contain a sperm, sperm have flagella for swimming
Friday, November 21, 2003
sporophyte plant grows out of the archegonia
- does not do photosynthesis so usually it will be unpigmented or brown in color
- diploid – produces spores by meiosis
- spores are dispersed by the wind, bryophytes spread distantly by spores
- when the spores hit the ground, they will go through mitosis, and then they develop a protonema and
grow by mitosis to form the adult gametophyte moss
Division pterophyta
- the ferns
- sporophyte is dominant
- a fern leave is called a frond and the roots are called rhizomes, asexual reproduction
- sporophyte plant produces spores by meiosis
- the structures that create these spores are called sori – clumps of sporangia on underside of fern frond,
brown spots on the bottom of a leaf
- sporangia will produce spores
- prothallus – gametophyte plant
-
both antheridia (male – produces flagellated sperm by mitosis) and archegonia (female – produce egg
my mitosis) are on the same plant
sporophyte grows out of the prothallus archegonia
gymnosperm – naked seeds – seeds are not contained in fruits
angiosperm – produce seeds in fruits
fruit – remnant ovary containing multiple fertilized ovules (eggs) which will become the seeds
division cycadophyta – sago palm
- have the largest sperm of any living organism
- can be seen with the naked eye
division coniferophyta
- conifers, cone bearing plants – pine trees, fir tree, cedar, cypress, redwood
- pollinate cones – male – microspores by meiosis –
o produces pollen by mitosis – male gametophyte plant
- staminate cones – female – megaspores by meiosis
o produces eggs by mitosis – multicellular female gametophyte plant, one cell will be an egg
- first year, beings to grow, second year it gets fertilized, third year you have a mature female cone and the
seed is devolved and leaves
- germinate – restart development
Monday, November 24, 2003
Angiosperms – covered seeds produce seeds within fruits
Division anthophyta – produce flowers
- showy and fragrant flowers
o evolved with insect pollinators
o depend on other organisms to move pollen from male portion of flower to the female protion
- small, inconspicuous flowers – depend on wind to move pollen
perfect – both male and female flower parts
imperfect – has only male or female – male plant and female plant
pollen is produced in the anther which is usually held up by a long stalk called the filament
ovules are produced in the ovary or stamen - looks like a bowling pin, you have the ovary at the bottom and
a stalk extending up called the style and then a stigma is at the very top with is sticky and has nectar on it, the
ovary has the ovules or eggs
sporophyte – diploid (2n) (oak tree, azalea, pea plant)
spores by meiosis (n)
- microspores – male gametophyte “pollen” – sperm (gametes are always haploid)
- megaspores – female gametophyte - multicellular and haploid – egg
seed leaf cotyledon – structure containing carbohydrates
Kingdom Animalia
- eukaryotic
- multicellular
- heterotrophs
- ingestion
- motile at some point in there life cycle
o will at least have contractile fibers, can move if stimulated
- don’t have cell walls
evolution of animals
believe to have come from a single cell organism such as a protist – eukaryotic cell
- colonial hypothesis – colonial protist began to have cellular specialization and lost the ability of cells to
live independently
- syncytial hypothesis – schizogony (multiple rounds of mitosis and then one final cell division into several
cells) type of reproduction – cells from the schizogony stay together and are connected by cytoplasmic
bridges – cells are connected by cell membrane
Methods of classifying animals
- body symmetry
o asymmetrical – no axis or plane which divides the animal into equal parts (sponges)
o radial symmetry – central axis around which body parts are arranged, like spokes on a wheel
(cnidarians – sea anemone)
 oral side and aboral side
o bilateral symmetry – one plane which separates the organism into roughly a mirror image right
and left halves
 dorsal – back – anterior
 ventral – belly – posterior
Level or organization
Cellular – basic unit of life
Tissue – group of cells held together to perform a similar function
Organ system – group of tissues performing a common function acting as a unit
Number of tissue layers – from embryonic development
1. ectoderm – outermost layer – skin, nervous system
2. endoderm – innermost layer – digest system
3. mesoderm – middle layer – most organs
embryonic development of the digestive tract
- single cell – zygote
- two cell stage
- four cell stage
- solid ball of cells – morula
- hallow ball of cells – blastula
- hollow ball of cells with tube starting to form – gastrula – embryonic digestive system – the one opening
to the digestive system in this stage is called the blastopore
o protostomes – the blastopore becomes the mouth
o deuterostomes – the blastopore becomes the anus – humans are deuterostomes
body cavity – an opening between the body wall (skin) and the digestive tract for internal organs
1. acoelomate – no body cavity
2. pseudocoelomates – they have a body cavity but it is not lined on all sides by mesoderm tissue
3. eucoelomates (coelomates) – they have a body cavity completely lined by mesoderm tissue –
peritoneum lines the body wall; mesenteries – thin tissues that hold the organs in place
presence of vertebral column
vertebra – series of small bones which form a support rod for the dorsal nerve cord
1. invertebrates – have no vertebra – most animals
2. vertebrates – have vertebra – small group of animals
phylum porifera – sponges – natural bath sponge (skeleton of a sponge)
- cellular level of development
- have no true tissues
- aquatic – found in fresh or saltwater
- most sponges are small, but there are some very large sponges (bath sponges) and barrel sponges (6ft)
- ecologically important because the are very efficient filter feeders and can quickly clean water
body plan
- outer body wall has many small pores
- the pores lead to a large central cavity known as the spongocoel
- out the top there will be a large central out-current opening known as the osculum
- collar cell – a cell with a collar of cilia and a flagella that beats to form a water current
- the cilia trap small particles and then ingest the particles by phagocytosis
skeleton
- made up of small particles known as spicules
- can be made of calcium (boney), silica (glass), sponging fibers (soft protein – bath sponges)
phylum cnidaria – jelly fishes, sea anemonaes, corals
- have tissue – not at the organ system level of development
- acoelomates
- have radial symmetry
two body forms
(sessile)
- polyp – oral side is facing up and a mouth surrounded by tentacles; attached to substrate by a foot
- medusa – oral side down and tentacles surround the mouth; free swimming
Cnidocytes – cell type
- cell containing a sting, sticky, or entangling structure called the nematocysts
- commonly found on tentacles
cubozoans
- chirnoex fleckeri
- sea wasp
- most toxic venom of any animal on earth
- south pacific – including Australia and new Zealand
two mechanisms to trigger the sting
- mechanical – hair like structure that has to be touched
- chemical stimulation –
phylum platyhelminthes
- flat worms
- three embryonic tissurelayers – mesoderm
- organ/organ-system level of development
- acoelomates – no body cavity
- protostomes – mouth develops from blastopore
- bilaterally symmetrical
three groups of flatworms
- planaria – free-living – ladder type nervous system
- flukes – parasites
- tapeworms – parasites
cephalization – development of head with brain; group of sense organs in head region
parasites – degernerate – lost some evolutionary advances due to not being freeliving
tape worm – no braing, no sense organs, they have a soolex that is used to attached the worm to your
intestinal lining
- progottides – sex organs – hermaphrodites
- no digestive system
phylum nematode
- bilaterally symmetrical
- three tissue layers
- organ system level of development
- protostomes
- have a pseudocoelom (the body cavity is not completely lined by the mesoderm)
- most abundant animals on the earth
- found in large numbers in soil
- beneficial soil nematodes (saprophytic – eat dead or dieing organic material)
- parasitic nematodes
o can be parasites of plants, fungi, protests, and animals
o have an outer non-living cuticle (waxy type coating that helps prevent digestion or an attack by
the immune system)
o pin worm (enterobius – most common round worm in American children)
o hook worm (necatur – people infected get anemia)
o filarial worms – round worms (dog heartworm) can cause elephantiasis (get into the lymph
system (a system of non-blood fluids) and block up certain parts of it) biting insects
development of the body cavity
- internal hydrostatic skeleton
- allows greater efficiency of muscles for locomotion
phylum mollusca
- bilaterially symmetrical
- protostomes
- organ system level of development
- three tissue layers
- have a true coelom (eucoelomates – body cavity is surrounded by mesoderm)
- mollusks do not utilize the coelom to the greatest benefit
- the coelom is reduced to a small area surrounding the heart
three general body areas
- mantle – organ of epithelial tissues which surrounds and covers the visceral mass – secretes the shell
- foot – organ of locomotion
- visceral mass – concentration of internal organs
Wednesday, December 03, 2003
Class Bivalvia
- clams and oysters
- two parts to shell
o only one shell
o one portion has very little calcium and is flexible – has a hinge
- filter feeders
- feed by collecting organic material on gills
- very little cephalization or sensory organs
- move by burrowing using the muscular foot
Class Gastropoda
- snails and slugs
- some cephalization
- development of head
- some sensory organs including eyes (simple by image forming) and sensory tentacles
- torsion – twisting of the body plan and move their anus over their head
- spiraling – slightly offcenter spiral and distributes body weight more evenly
- their body weight is enhanced by their shell, and the shell is also twisted
- can live on land
o pulmonate snails – have lost their gills and developed a lung (a lung is a moist epithelium which
can have gas exchange)
o the keep their mantle cavity moist for gas exchange
- slugs – have lots of mucus glands on the body to allow gas exchange
Class cephalopoda
- octopods, squids, cuttlefish, chambered nautilus
- greatly reduced shell
o it is absent in the octopods and greatly reduced in the squids (pen)
- chambered nautilus still has a complete shell (used the shell for buoyancy
o the animal lives only in the outer chamber but has a thin piece of tissue that goes all the way back
that fills the chambers with gas to keep it afloat
- have the highest degree of nervous development
- have a very complex brain that is capable of learning and memory, and maybe emotion
o the cuttlefish has a pigment language (if it is scared, it will turn white, and if it is scared, it will
show different patterns of color)
- have eyes (have the most complex invertebrate eyes and almost identical to vertebrate eyes
Phylum annelida
- truly segmented
- have three tissue layers
- on the organ system level of development
- protostomes
- eucoelomates
- take advantage of their coelom
- segmentation – repetition of body parts along the longitudinal axis of the body
- feature of ectoderm and mesoderm – skin and most organ systems are segmented
- the endoderm is not segmented (digestive tract)
- coelom – completely surrounded by mesoderm tissue (the body cavity is segmented into multiple
cavities – one per segment – them muscles are segmented as well
-
have multiple units of hydrostatic skeleton and can act independently for locomotion which is much
more efficient
three groups of annelida
class polychaeta
- sand worms and bristle worms
- have flesh appendages – used for locomotion or respiration – increase in surface area – one pair per seg.
Class oligochaets
- earthworms
- environmentally important
o ingest soil/organic matter and return it to the earth – act as saprophytes
o aerate the soil which increases bacterial decomposition which will increase soil nutrients
class hirudinea
- leeches
- ectoparasites
- feed on body fluids or blood
- feed on most animals (nematodes, mollusks, other annelids, arthropods, echinoderms, chordates (fish,
amphibians, retiles, birds, and mammals)
- specific for groups of animals
- have a sucker on oral or anterior end
- the sucker surrounds the mouth and when they bite, they inject a anticoagulant and an anesthetic
- the hirudo medicinalis is the medical leech
o we derived our first anti coagulant which is known as hirudin
o used to aid limb reattachment
phylum arthropoda
- crayfish, crabs, insects, spiders, scorpions
- most diverse group on animals (more arthropod species than all other species of animals combined)
- three tissue layers, organsystem, protostomes, eucoelomates, segmented
- segments fused into major units known as tagmata
o in the insects, there is a head, thorax, and an abdomen
o in the crayfish, there is a cephalothorax and a abdomen - head
o in the arachnids, there is a prosoma and a opisthosoma – thorax and abdomen
crustaceans – crayfish and crabs – have an exoskeleton that is calfied – hard
insects – have three pair of walkinglegs and two pairs of wings – most diverse group
arachnids – spiders, have four pairs of walkinglegs, jaws develop into fangs
all have a exoskeleton
- a hard nonliving outer coating and can be made of protein, wax, or calcium carbonate
- an excellent point of attachment for muscles
- the have jointed appendages which allows for great mobility
- the exoskeleton is not living so it will not grow with the animal so they most “molt” – shed the old
exoskeleton and then re-grow a new one, the new one will be very soft so they will puff their body with
water or air so that they can temporarily enlarge it and then it begins to harden
phylum echinodermata
- first deuterostome
- the blastopore becomes the anus and then mouth develops second
- seastars, brittlestars, sea urchins, sand dollars, and sea cucumbers
- they have an endoskeleton – which is a boney skeleton under the skin which allows for muscle
attachment and moving; serves as a hard protective case
- radially semmetrical
- the larva of the echinoderms are bilaterally symmetrical
- adults have develop radial symmetry later in life from a bilaterally symmetrical ancestor
- loss of cephalization – have a very primitive nervous system
water vascular system
- network of tubes for seawater
- madreporite – water sieve plate, draws in seawater and filters out sediment
- ringcanel – in central disk area – around the mouth
- radial canals – down the arms, canals circling the body
ampulla and tube feet – ampulla – bulb like orgain inside the body
regeneration – can quickly regenerate lost body parts
- some will reproduce by breaking apart
- sea star – one arm + 20% central disk = a new 5 armed sea star
Protostomes – determinant development – early in embryo life the fates of each cell are determined – cells
differentiate early
Deuterostomes – cells differentiate late in embryonic development – identical twins
phylum chordate
- three tissue layers, organ system, eucoelomates, deuterostomes
four “hallmark” characteristics of chordates
- notochord – dorsal support structure, part of the endoskeleton, support and protect the nerve chord
- dorsal hollow nerve chord – other animals had ventral and solid nerve chords
- post-anal tail – tail that is supported by either a notochord or a vertebrae that extends beyond the anus or
junction of the pelvic girdle and axial skeleton (vertebral column)
- pharyngeal slits or pouches – connections between digestive syster (pharynx)
aquatic chordates – gills for respiration
tetrapods – terrestrial chordates, inner ear, tonsil
invertebrate chordates
subphylum urochordata
- tunicates – sea squirts
- only larva has all for chordates features
- adult only has one – gill slit
- filter feed by gill slits
- tunic – non living outer coat that is made of proteins and cellulose
subphylum cephalochordate
- lancelets
- small 5-7cm
- have all four features as larva and adults
- larva and adults are the same except the adults have sex organs
- neotany – retain larval features as adults
paedomorphosis
- during evolution of chordates, larval features were retained and developed
subplylum myxini
- hagfishes
- jawless fishes without vertebra
- have teeth on their tongue and they are scavengers
- specialize on decaying whale and shark remains
- myxin – latin root meaning slim or mucus
- eel skin – hagfish skin
subplylum vertebrata
- notochord is replaced by vertebra which are jointed skeletal parts
class agnatha – jawless vertebrate fish
- lampreys (parasites of jawed fishes)
- mouth is surrounded by a ring of teeth
- have a larva known as the ammocoete larva which is nearly identical to the cephalochordates
class chondrichthyes
- cartilage fishes
- sharks, rays, skates
- the skeleton is cartilage
- have five to seven gill slits on the head
- have a heterocercal tail – top of the tail is longer than the bottom of the tail, which provides lift
- no swim bladder
class osteichthyles
- most diverse class of the vertebrates
- have bony skeletons
- gills are covered by a single flap known as an operculum
- have a swim bladder – modified part of the digestive system that fills with gases and provides buoyancy
- have a homocircle tail
class amphibia
- frogs, toads, salamanders
- “double life” – part of the life of the animal must be in water, usually the larval form
- During the larval form, they will have gills
- During the adult form, they will have lungs
- In the adult form, the skin must stay moist
Class rephilia
- first tetrapods that are truly independent of water
- have an amniotic egg – has membranes for water supply, gas exchange, nutrient supply (yolk), storing
wastes (ammonia or urea)
- have a leathery or a hard shell
class aves – also have an amniotic egg
- have feathers and wings
- capable of flight
- have bones with air sacs that make them lighter
- have a sternum with a keel to control flight
class mammalian
- have fur and nurse their young with milk from mammary glands
- monotremes – lay amniotic eggs, (duck billed platypus and spiny anteater)
- marsupial – bear underdeveloped young which must continue development in pouches or sacs –opossum
- placental mammals – bear young until completely developed and have a placenta – a tissue with lots of
arteries and veins to transport nutrients and oxygen to the embryo and carry away wastes
page 731 – sexually transmitted diseases; 732 – non contraceptive tech
Homeostasis – attempt to maintain body environment within a restricted set of parameters
Static equilibrium – equilibrium implies fluctuation
- maintains by feed back mechanisms
- endocrine system – release of hormones and other chemical signals
- nervous system – sensory cells to detect changing environmental conditions
o relays (nerve chords) to transmitted information about the changes
- all other systems
negative feedback
- primary system used by body
- any deviation away from the set point (environment of cells fluctuates around)
- results in a cascade of events designed to counteract the deviation
salinity of cells – 0.9% saline
drop in salinity – 0.85%
- responds by restricting anti-diuretic hormone
- produce more dilute urine
hypothalamus – control center for most cellular set points
- hypothermia
o shivering – works on heat from muscle cells
o metabolic rate increases – result is a burst of energy
o shutdown blood flow to extremities – fingers and toes
positive feedback – a deviation from the set point results in an increase to that deviation
gonads
- testes
o found outside body cavity
o secrotum
o maintain correct temperature for sperm product
- epididymus
o temporary sperm storage
- vas deferens – tube for transporting sperm
- vas deferens wraps around the urinary bladder at the bottom of the bladder connects to the urethra
- in males, the urethra transports both urine and sperm
- seretions from – porstate gland, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral gland (cowpers’s gland)
o contains lubricants, sugars, water, acid neutralizers
males
- no set cyclic pattern to hormones
- constant release of hormones beginning with puberty
hypothalamus
- produces gonadotropin releasing hormones
pituitary gland
- lh – luteinizing hormone – makes testes to produce testosterone
- fsh – follicle stimulating – works together with testosterone to stimulate sperm production
females
gonads
- ovaries – meiosis begins before birth and then stops until puberty
- fimbrae of the uterine tubes surround the ovaries – fingers and fallopian tubes
- egg is released by rupture into the body cavity
- uterine tubes
- uterus – muscular organ designed to implant and nourish an embryo
- endometrium – inner lining of the uterus that will expand and slough off cyclically
- cervix – found at the top of the vagina
external organs
- clitoris – group of sensory cells designed to stimulate the excitement phase of sex
o vaginal sweating – lubrication of the vagina
o pressure of cells causing water release from cells in the vagina
Females – cycles every 28 days; can range 26-30 days
Ovarian cycle
- production and maturation of the egg in a follicale
- ovulation
- corpus luteum (old follicle) release progesterone and estrogen
Menstrual cycle
- menstrual phase – day 1-5
o loss of endometrium
- proliferative phase – day 6-13
o rebuilding the endometrium
- secretory phase – day 14-28
o thickening of endometrium
pituitary hormones – lh and fsh
ovarian hormones – progesterone and estrogen
total femal cycle
1. menstruation – 1-5
a. follicular phase – 1-13 – mature follicle secretes estrogen
b. proliferation of endometrium – due to estrogen – 6-13
2. ovulation – day 14
a. proceeded by a spike in lh, fsh, and estrogen
b. after ovulation, pituitary hormone levels drop
3. zuteal phase (ovarian)
a. corpus luteum begins secreting both estrogen and progesterone
b. secretory phase of menstrual cycle – thickening of endometrium
c. at the end of 27 days, the corpus luteum quits producing estrogen and progesterone
pregnancy – fertilization in the top 1/3rd of the uterine tube; embryo (multicellular) implants into the uterus
4-6 days after fertilization; roughly one half of all embryos never implant