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Learning
Chapter 8-Learning
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!
1. Discuss the importance of learning and the process of learning
associations.
2. Describe the general process of classical conditioning as
demonstrated by Pavlov’s experiments.
3. Explain the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous
recovery, generalization, and discrimination.
Learning
! relatively permanent
change in an organism’s
behavior due to
experience
z Behaviorism -The attempt
to understand observable
activity in terms of
observable stimuli and
observable responses
z John B. Watson (1913)
z B.F. Skinner (1938)
4. Discuss the importance of cognitive processes and biological
constraints in classical conditioning.
5. Explain the importance of Pavlov’s work and describe how it might
apply to an understanding of human health and well-being.
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Association
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Association
! We learn by association
Event 1
Event 2
! Our minds naturally connect events that occur in
sequence
! Learning to
associate two
events
! Associative Learning
! learning that two events occur together
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
two stimuli
a response and its consequences
2 types (classical and operant
conditioning)
conditioning- the process of learning associations
**associative learning is not the only way we learn
we also learn from other peoples experience and examples –
called observational learning
Classical or Pavlovian
Conditioning
Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock
Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics
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Operant Conditioning
! We learn
to
associate
two stimuli
! We learn to
associate a
response and
its
consequence
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Classical Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
! Ivan Pavlov
! 1849-1936
! Russian
physician/
neurophysiologist
! Nobel Prize in
1904
! studied digestive
secretions
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Classical Conditioning
! naturally, if you put food in a dog’s mouth he
will salivate
! Pavlov noticed the dogs began to salivate to
associated stimuli
! ex’s. sight of food, sight of lab worker who
fed the dogs, sound of footsteps, etc.
! Pavlov decided this needed to be looked into
! cut a hole in the dogs cheek and attached a
tube to measure salivation
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Pavlov’s Classic
Experiment
Before Conditioning
! Pavlov’s device
for recording
salivation
UCS (food
in mouth)
Neutral
stimulus
(tone)
UCR
(salivation)
During Conditioning
No
salivation
After Conditioning
UCS (food
in mouth)
Neutral
stimulus
(tone)
CS
(tone)
UCR
(salivation)
CR (salivation)
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Classical Conditioning
! Classical Conditioning
! organism comes to associate two stimuli
! a neutral stimulus that signals an
unconditioned stimulus begins to
produce a response that anticipates and
prepares for the unconditioned stimulus
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Behaviorism
! John B. Watson
(“Little Albert” Study)
! viewed psychology as
objective science
! generally agreed-upon
consensus today
! recommended study of
behavior without reference
to unobservable mental
processes
! not universally accepted by all
schools of thought today
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Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
! Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
! Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
! stimulus that unconditionally--automatically
and naturally--triggers a response (food)
! Unconditioned Response (UCR)
! unlearned, naturally occurring response to the
unconditioned stimulus
(salivation in response to food in mouth)
! originally irrelevant/neutral stimulus that,
after association with an unconditioned
stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned
response (tone)
! Conditioned Response (CR)
! learned response to a previously neutral
conditioned stimulus
(salivation in response to the tone)
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Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
! Acquisition
! Pavlov had to find out how much time should lapse
between the presentation of the NS and the US to better
understand acquisition
! found it would work up to ! a second before the
pairing
! later studies concluded classical conditioning is
biologically adaptive
! ex. Snapping twig (CS) may signal a predator to a deer
(US)
! conditioning serves a function
! helps animals respond to cues that help it gain food,
avoid danger, locate mates, and reproduce
! the initial stage in classical conditioning
! the phase where the neutral stimulus (NS) becomes
associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) so
that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a
conditioned response
! in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a
reinforced response
! Q: What is the relationship b/w the time interval b/w presentation
of NS + UCS and the rate of acquistion???????
! (must have stimulus contiguity – occur together in space & time)
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Classical Conditioning
UCS
(passionate
kiss)
CS
(onion
breath)
CS
(onion
breath)
CR
(sexual
arousal)
Classical Conditioning
Q: What happens when the CS is
repeatedly presented without the
UCS?
UCR
(sexual
arousal)
UCS
(passionate
Kiss)
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UCR
(sexual
arousal)
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Classical Conditioning
! Extinction
! diminishing of a CR
! in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS
! ex. Dog stops salivating at sound of bell if bell keeps
happening and no food is given
! Note -Extinction doesn’t equal unlearning
! --Length of extinction is det by strength of bond
! in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer
reinforced
Classical
Conditioning
Strength
of CR
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Acquisition
(CS+UCS)
Extinction
(CS alone)
Spontaneous
recovery of
CR
Extinction
(CS alone)
Pause
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Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
! Spontaneous Recovery
! reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR
! ex. Dog salivates at the sound of the bell if he does not hear a
bell for several hours
! Renewal Effect-if response is extinguished in different
environment than acquired, response will reappear in original
environment
! Generalization
! tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar responses
! ex. Dentists drill v. jeweler’s
! ex. Dog salivates in resp to windchimes
! ex. Child attacked by a Doberman may also fear a Labrador
Retriever
! Ex. “Little Albert”: rabbit, dog, Santa Claus mask, Watson’s Hair
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Generalization
Drops of saliva
in 30 seconds
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! Discrimination
! in classical conditioning, the learned ability
to distinguish between a CS and other
stimuli that do not signal a UCS
! Ex. Dog stops salivating at windchimes
and only salivates in resp to tuning fork
! ex. Child attacked by a Doberman will not
fear the friendly Labrador Retriever
Nausea Conditioning in
Cancer Patients
UCS
(drug)
60
UCR
(nausea)
50
40
CS
(waiting
room)
30
20
UCS
(drug)
UCR
(nausea)
10
0
Hind
paw
Pelvis
Thigh
Shoulder
Trunk
Front
paw
Foreleg
Part of body stimulated
CS
(waiting
room)
CR
(nausea)
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Cognitive & Biological
Processes in CC
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Therapy
3 Ways to use CC to Overcome Fears
1. Flooding - Exposing someone to harmless
stimuli which they fear
! Ex. Tying someone with arachnophobia down
and dumping spiders on her – she will learn the
spiders do not plan to harm her
! usually unpleasant to the person being flooded
Classical Conditioning –
Phobias & Therapy
Aversive Therapy (p692) - reverse of systematic
desensitization (this therapy isn’t used to treat phobias but
to condition aversion in subject to something they should
avoid)
EX. To stop biting you nails--wearing nail polish
Classical Conditioning –
Phobias & Therapy
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! 2. Counterconditioning- 2 types (Sys Desens & Aversive Cond)
! Systematic Desensitization –
! pairing an unpleasant stimulus with an enjoyable stimulus
>>Ex. Giving a child scared of a dog a twinkie every time he plays with a dog
! Teaching someone relaxation techniques then gradually exposing them to the
feared stimulus as their level of relaxation increases (progessive relaxation)
! Ex. Showing a photo of a spider as soon as she can relax, put a spider in a jar
across the room, as soon as she can relax
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8-2 Operant Conditioning
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6. Describe the process of operant conditioning, including the
procedure of shaping, as demonstrated by Skinner’s
experiments.
7. Identify the different types of reinforcers and describe major
schedules of partial reinforcement.
! .
Other ClassicalCond Application:
CC immunosuppression (Ader) (559)
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Cognitive Processes
Robert Rescorla & Richard Wagner – role of expectancy of
UCS after pres of CS
! Also: why antabuse doesn’t work to treat alcoholism
Bio Predisp
Garcia & Koelling-taste aversion studies
! Rats attributed illness to flavored H20 not cage which was
radiated, also avoided even if not sickened until hours later
! Human taste averse to mussels
! Shows why CS & UCS don’t have to be tightly paired for
conditioning to take place
! Are the laws of learning universal across all
animals?
! No, there are biological constraints on an
organism’s capacity for conditioning
>>Biologically predisposed to learn associations that
enhance survival
Classical Conditioning – Phobias &
Cognitive & Biological
Processes in CC (321-322)
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Operant Conditioning
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Operant Conditioning
! Operant Conditioning
! Law of Effect
! type of learning in which behavior is
strengthened if followed by reinforcement or
diminished if followed by punishment
! CC involves respondent behavior
caused by automatic responses to stimuli
! OC involves operant behavior
! behavior that operates on the environment,
producing consequences
! therefore, OC involves things we can control
! Thorndike’s principle that behaviors
followed by favorable consequences
become more likely, and behaviors
followed by unfavorable consequences
become less likely <<puzzle box>>
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Operant Conditioning
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Operant Chamber
! B.F. Skinner
(1904-1990)
! elaborated
Thorndike’s Law of
Effect
! says rewarded
behavior is likely to
recur
! developed behavioral
technology
! Skinner Box
! chamber with a
bar or key that an
animal
manipulates to
obtain a food or
water reinforcer
! contains devices
to record
responses
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Operant Conditioning
! Skinner used the concept of shaping to teach
animals to do things
! Shaping - an operant conditioning procedure
where reinforcers are used to gradually guide
an animal toward a desired behavior
! Builds on existing behavior
! Reward successive approximations towards final
desired behavior
chaining
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Operant Conditioning
! Reinforcer- any event that strengthens
the behavior it follows
!
often times they are rewards, but
they do not have to be
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Operant Conditioning
Get it straight
z Positive Reinforcement-
Reinforcement by
Adding
z Negative Reinforcement-
Reinforcement by
Removing
z Positive Punishment- Punishment by Adding
z Negative Punishment- Punishment by
Removing
Snooze
bar
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Principles of
Reinforcement
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Principles of ReinforcementImmediate v. Delayed
! Primary Reinforcer
! innately reinforcing stimulus
! i.e., satisfies a biological need
! (eg. food, H2O)
! Conditioned Reinforcer (secondary reinforcer)
! stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through
its association with primary reinforcer
! (eg. money, praise, tokens in “token economy”
behavior modification program)
Schedules of ReinforcementContinuous v. Partial
! Continuous Reinforcement
! reinforcing the desired response each time it
occurs
! Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
! reinforcing a response only part of the time
! results in slower acquisition
! greater resistance to extinction
* 4 types of partial reinforcment
schedules
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! Immediate vs. Delayed
! 1. Immediate
! works best for animals, also works w/
humans
! 2. Delayed
! will work with humans
Schedules of Reinforcement4 Types of Partial: FR, VR, FI, VI
! Fixed Ratio (FR)
! reinforces a response only after a specified
number of responses
! faster you respond the more rewards you get
! different ratios
! very high rate of responding
! ex. Factory worker may be paid a $5 bonus for
every 1000 pieces he completes in a day
! resting reduces rewards
! overall output increases on this schedule
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Schedules of Reinforcement-
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4 Types of Partial: FR, VR, FI, VI
Schedules of Reinforcement4 Types of Partial: FR, VR, FI, VI
! Fixed Interval (FI)
! Variable Ratio (VR)
! reinforces a response only after a
specified time has elapsed
! response occurs more frequently as
the anticipated time for reward
draws near (ie. Getting mail,
paycheck every 2 weeks)
! reinforces a response after an
unpredictable number of responses
! like gambling (slot machine), fishing
! very hard to extinguish because of
unpredictability (resistant to
extinction)
Schedules of Reinforcement-
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4 Types of Partial: FR, VR, FI, VI
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Schedules of
Reinforcement
Number of
responses
! Variable Interval (VI)
1000
! reinforces a response at unpredictable
time intervals
! produces slow steady responding
! like pop quiz, bonus check @
Christmas
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
750
Rapid responding
near time for
reinforcement
500
Variable Interval
250
Steady responding
0
8-3 Operant Cond Cont’d &
Observational Learning
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8. Discuss the effects of punishment on behavior.
9. Discuss the importance of cognitive processes and biological
predispositions in operant conditioning.
10. Explain why Skinner’s ideas were controversial, and describe
some major applications of operant conditioning.
11. Describe the process of observational learning as demonstrated
by Bandura’s experiments, and discuss the impact of antisocial
and prosocial modeling.
.
10
20
30
40
50
Time (minutes)
60
70
80
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Punishment
! Punishment
! aversive event that decreases the behavior that it
follows
! not the same as negative reinforcement
! punishment does not teach alternate acceptable
behaviors
! may lead to anger and frustration
! Should be swift, sufficient & certain to be most effective
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Punishment
Get it straight
z Positive Reinforcement-
Reinforcement by
Adding
z Negative Reinforcement-
Reinforcement by
Removing
z Positive Punishment- Punishment by Adding
z Negative Punishment- Punishment by
Removing
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Cognition and Operant
Conditioning
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Latent Learning
! Cognitive Map (EC Tolman)
! mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
! Example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have
learned a cognitive map of it
>>contradicts Skinner’s discounting of cognitive processes
! Latent Learning
! learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an
incentive to demonstrate it
Cognition and Operant
Conditioning
! Intrinsic Motivation
! Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be
effective
! Extrinsic Motivation
! Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or
threats of punishments
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Cognition and Operant
Conditioning
! Overjustification Effect
! the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already
likes to do
! the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic
interest, as the motivation for performing the task
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Operant Learning
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Operant Conditioning
! Biological Predispositions and Constraints in Operant Cond
! Applications of Operant Conditioning
Again: Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that
are naturally adaptive
! Hamsters can be op conditioned to dig using food as reinf b/c digging is a
natural behavior when searching for food. Cannot cond hamster to wash face.
! Token Economy as a Behavior Modification System
! Adaptive Online Testing
In workplace:
Boost productivity by making desired behaviors well-defined and achievable. Use
Immediate reinf. (IBM)
! Pigeons flap wings to avoid shock (neg reinf) and peck for food reward(pos
reinf) but won’t peck to avoid shock or flap wings to get food
Operant vs Classical
Conditioning
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Observational Learning
! Observational Learning (Albert Bandura Study)
! learning by observing others
! Modeling
! process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
! Obs Learning and modeling start early -9 mo old – models
play behaviors
14 mo old – models tv behaviors
Likely to imitate those we perceive as
1. similar to ourselves
2. successful
3. admirable
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Observational Learning
! Mirror Neurons
! frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions
or when observing another doing so
! may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy
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Observational Learning
! ex. -Albert Bandura –guru of observational
learning
!
-did the Bobo Doll Exp.
! found that children who see adult violently
beating an inflated doll are more likely to do so
themselves than those who don’t
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Observational Learning
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Observational Learning
! models are most effective when actions and words are
consistent
! children often learn hypocritical ways from parents
! Kids imitate hypocrisy – doing what is done and saying
what is said
! To encourage children to read, read to them, let them
see you read, and surround them with reading materials
z Applications of Bandura’s research
! lessons we learn as children are not easily unlearned as adults
z Negative – Anti-Social Models
z Positive – Prosocial Models
! Prosocial Behavior
! positive, constructive, helpful behavior
! opposite of antisocial behavior
! prosocial models may also have prosocial effects
!
ex. Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.
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Observational Learning
z
!18 most kids spend more time watching tv than in school
z
90% of houses – 3 or more tvs, exp Contradictory reports b/w what parents say their
kids are watching and what they’re actually watching
z
Primetime – 3 viol acts/ hr, Sat a.m. 18/ hr
z
Before leaving elem sch, child has seen 8000 tv murders & 100,000 viol acts
z
Kids who watch 3 hours tv/ day @ 14, commit 5x aggressive acts b/w16-22 as 14 yr
old who watches 1 hr or less
z
Violent acts correlate with the adoption of TV (1957-1974 violent acts doubled)
z
--more evidence: regions late in getting tv had a later homicide rate jump that
correlated with TV adoption time
Biggest problem w/ tv could be opportunity costs (remember delinq daydream less –
daydreaming as sub for impulsive behavior)
z
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Observational Learning
z 700% inc in boys’ violent play after watching “Power Rangers”