International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, Volume 2, Issue 11, November 2012)
Seismic Hazard And Its Mitigation, A Review
Dr. Th. Kiranbala Devi
Faculty, Manipur Institute of Technology,Manipur University
Abstract - Rapid growth of development accompanied
with
unabated
construction
of
buildings
and
infrastructures. With the numerous raise of buildings and
infrastructures earthquake hazards become one of the most
devastating natural hazards as in earthquake majority of
the casualty and damages are caused due to the collapse of
buildings and structures. The earthquake hazards cannot
be changed or prevented but its destructions can be
mitigated with the concerted efforts of planners,
administrators, engineers, architects, builders, promoters
etc. After the Yokohama strategy for safer world in 1994,
there is paradigm shift from post disaster reconstruction
and relief to pre disaster pro-active approach to reduce the
impact of natural hazards. It should be a continuous
process of all the interlinked activities - pre-earthquake
(preparation & planning), during earthquake (emergency
response) and post earthquake (recovery and rebuilding)
measures.
A systematic approach of pre-earthquake measures
beginning with the awareness campaign about the
earthquake and preparedness for hazards , effective
emergency evacuation, relief and rehabilitation plans,
invocation of legal measures and directives to adopt for
earthquake resistant design as mandatory for new
structures. Vulnerability assessment of existing structures
and providing retrofitting to these structures starting with
the most vulnerable of the most important ones is
considered as very important action to be taken up to
reduce the impact of disasters caused due to the collapse of
structures in an earthquake are the main features of
adopting earthquake disaster mitigation. After earthquake,
the damaged structures are needed to be reconstructed and
strengthened and make it fit & save to dwell. Other than
these counselling is also considered as important for
removal of fear psychosis.
Since the Yokohama strategy and plan of action for a
safer world, 1994 was adopted, there have been about
7,100 disasters resulting from natural hazards around the
world. They have killed more than 300,000 people and
caused more than US$800 billion in loss. Some
estimates suggest that well over 200 million people have
been affected every year by natural disasters since 1991.
Earthquakes are one of the worst among the natural
disasters. About 1 lakh earthquakes of magnitude more
than 3 hit the earth every year.
According to
conservative estimate more 15 million human lives have
been lost and damage worth 100 billon dollars have been
inflicted due to this in the recorded history although
earthquake disaster accounted for only 15 percent of the
recorded events during the past 10 years, they resulted in
the one third of the 300,000 fatalities of the natural
disasters. A sequence of highly destructive and deadly
earthquakes between 1999 and 2004 raised public outcry
about the needlessly high number of fatalities and lack of
public safety afforded to public facilities specially
schools.
The occurrence of earthquakes can be explained with
the concept of “plate tectonics” based on the three broad
categories of earthquakes (1) Those occurring at the
subduction/collision Zone (Inter-plates) (2) Those at midoceanic ridges and (3) Those at intra plates (Acharrya,
1999).
Earthquakes cannot be predicted, but seismologists
are, however, in a position to indicate the possibility of
recurrence of earthquakes in potentially large areas based
on palaeoseismicity, micro seismic activities and
precursors.
Keywords - Retrofitting, Seismic Hazard, Catastrophe,
Vulnerability, Disaster.
Table I
Some of the catastrophic earthquake of the world
Place
1) Kangra
2) Bihar
Nepal Border
3) Tangsham,
China
4) Mexico
I. INTRODUCTION
Natural disasters like earthquake, landslide flood,
draught, cyclone, forest fire, volcanic eruption and major
accidents are quite common in different part of the world.
These lead to the loss of life, property damage and socioeconomic destruction. Such impact of destruction in
terms of human and economic loses has risen in the
recent years and society in general has become more
vulnerable to natural disaster due to the rapid growth of
population and development accompanied with unabated
construction of buildings and infrastructures.
5) Killari
(Latur)
6) Bhuj,
Gujarat
7) Sumatra,
Indonesia
8) Japan
517
Year
April 4, 1905
Jan 1, 1934
Magnitude
8.6
8.4
Casually
>20,000
>10,653
July 26, 1976
7.8
>3 lakhs
September19,
1985
September30,
1993
January26, 2001
8.1
>10,000
6.4
>10,000
6.9
>19,500
December26,
2001
March 11, 2011
9.3
>15,500 (In
India)
>11,000
8.9
International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, Volume 2, Issue 11, November 2012)
The precise prediction of earthquakes in terms of
space and time is not possible Moreover prediction may
not be helpful in avoiding or reducing damages caused by
earthquakes because building and structures cannot be
evacuated. It can, at the most be helpful in saving human
lives. The disastrous effects of these however can be
minimised considerably through scientific understanding
of their nature, causes, frequency magnitude and area of
influence. Therefore, earthquakes disaster mitigation and
preparedness strategies are the need of the hour to fight
and reduce its miseries to mankind.
II.
A. Preparedness: (Pre-earthquake measures) It is
always more cost effective to adopt appropriate
mitigation measures in advance than to spend a large sum
of money on relief, recovery and rehabilitation. Disaster
preparedness includes all of the activities that are carried
out prior to the advance notice of a catastrophe in order
to facilitate the use of available resources, relief and
rehabilitation in the best possible fashion.
B. Awareness Campaign: It is needed to be launched
effectively to educate the people about the disastrous
effects of earthquakes and to prepare them to face these
in a better way. Prevention and mitigation begins with
the information. Moreover, public education and
community participation is the key to success of the
implementation of reduction and mitigation programmes.
However, awareness of the potential benefits of disaster
reduction is found limited to specialised circle and has
not yet been successfully communicated to all sectors of
society, in particular policymakers and general public.
This is due to the lack of attention for the issue in
sufficient commitment and resources for promotional
activities at all levels.
These shortcomings have to be addressed by
involvement of people representation from all shorts of
individuals, groups, society, professional, administrator,
NGOs, etc.
C. Development Policy: Disaster prevention and
preparedness should be considered as integral aspect in
the formation of Development policy and planning at all
level (national, regional bilateral, multilateral and
international level) preparedness for seismic hazard
involves sound emergency evacuation, relief and
rehabilitation plans, which can be effectively used during
a damaging earthquake mitigation and preparedness
measures go hand in hand for vulnerability reduction and
rapid professional response to disasters. The Bhuj
earthquake in January 2001 faced several inadequacies in
the system. The search and rescue team had not been
trained professionally, specialized dog squad to look for
line bodies under debris were not available; and there
was no centralised resource inventory for emergency
response. Specialist search and rescue team from other
countries did reach Bhuj. However, precious time was
lost and failed to act as quickly as desired.
D. Techno Legal Measures: Techno legal measures
have to be adopted to prevent earthquake disaster. These
include a firmed land used policy, Enforcing of strict
building bye laws following seismic construction codes,
covering the aspect of ensuring technical implementation
of the safety aspects in all new constructions and
upgrading the strength of existing structurally vulnerable
constructions.
EARTHQUAKES H AZARDS AND M ITIGATION
Majority of the casualty and damages during
earthquakes are caused due to collapse of building and
structures. This risk of seismic hazards become one of
the most devastating natural hazard as the present trend
of rapid growth of development accompanied with
unabated construction of buildings and infrastructures.
Rapid urbanisation shapes disaster risks through a
complex association of concentrated population, social
exclusion and poverty compounded by physical
vulnerability. This can be seen in the consequences of
unsuited land use, inadequate protection of urban
infrastructures, ineffective building code enforcement,
poor construction practice and limited opportunities to
transfer or spread risk. The underlying problems of
growing vulnerability to natural and technological
hazards are largely an outcome of short-sighted
development activities considering these factors,
structural mitigation measures are the key to make a
significant impact towards earthquakes safety in the
word. The principal purpose of hazard mitigation is the
protection of life, even when the risk to a single
individual at any time is comparatively small. Concerned
with the impact of natural disasters in the background of
united Nation’s resolution and following the Yokohama
Strategy for a Safer World, May,1994, there is paradigm
shift from post disaster reconstruction and relief to post
disaster pro-active approach to reduce the impact of
natural hazards.
Following the strategy, disaster prevention, mitigation
and preparedness are emphasised as better option than
disaster response in achieving the goals and objectives of
vulnerability reduction. Disaster response alone is not
sufficient as it yields only temporary results at a very
high cost. However all the measures of pre-earthquake
(preparedness/preparation
&
planning),
during
earthquakes (emergency and response) and post
earthquake (recovery and rebuilding) should be a
continuous and interlinked co-ordinated activities to
achieve the maximum satisfactory result.
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International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, Volume 2, Issue 11, November 2012)
The strict building bye laws may not only help to
address any conflict of interest happened between the
owners who pay for the structures, who tend to attend
higher risk on the occurrence of earthquake rather than
make large investment into extra safety measures for a
large earthquake events that rarely happens.
E. Retrofitting of Life Lline Building: Retrofitting of the
existing vulnerable buildings should be taken on the
priority basis like hospitals, schools, railways,
administrative building, cinema halls, multi-storeyed
apartments where people congregate at the most.
III.
The study will certainly useful to chalk out the most
demanded actions to be taken up at the time of
earthquake disaster, and guided in shaping the planning
and approach to take up earthquake disaster mitigation
effort effectively.
CASE STUDY 1: GUJARAT EARTHQUAKE 2001.
A powerful Earthquake of magnitude 6.9 on Richter
Scale rocked the Western Indian state of Gujarat on 26 th
January 2001.It caused extensive damage to life and
properties. This earthquake was so devastating in its scale
and suffering that likes of it had not been experienced in
past 50 years. Leaving thousands seriously injured,
bruised and handicapped, psychologically and
economically.
The epicentre of the earthquake was located at 23.6
north Latitude and 69.8 east Longitude, about 20 Km
North East of Bhuj Town of Kutch district in Western
Gujarat. At the depth of only 23 Km below surface this
quake generated intense shaking which was felt in 70%
region in India and far beyond in neighbouring Pakistan
and Nepal too.
EARTHQUAKE MEASURES
1. During Earthquake
 The action plan prepared during pre-earthquake
period has to be implemented immediately after
the occurrence of an earthquake.
 The volunteer groups/rescue/search teams have
to be activated to carry out the relief work.
 The effected people need to be evacuated to the
safer places.
 The communication and other essential services
like water supply, electricity, transport, etc.
ought to be restored on emergency basis.
 Supply of food items and essentials need to be
taken up. Fastest means of communication
(preferable helicopter) should be used to reach
the remote villages.
 Overall vigilance need to be maintained after the
main shock as it is usually followed by many
aftershock. The public has to be informed about
the development on an hourly basis.
Effects of the Earthquake:
The scale of the impact of the earthquake was so
devastated that the shock or seismic waves spread out in
a 700 Km circumference from the epicentre and within
this area the devastation was immense. There was
significant damage to infrastructures and human lives in
this earthquake.
 More than 20,000 people including many medically
trained personnel died and 1,67,000 people injured.
 600,000 people were left homeless.
 21 of the total 25 districts of the state were affected.
Four Districts lay in ruin.
 650 Km of National Highways damaged, 100Km
were severed. Many minor and major bridges
collapsed.
 In Bhuj city, more than 3000 lost their lives., the
main hospital was crushed and 90% of the buildings
were destroyed.
 Heavy damaged done to Railways, Station
Buildings, bridges, residential quarters.
2. Post-Earthquake : Damage structures need to be
reconstructed on war footing.


The affected people ought to be rehabilitated.
A comprehensive list of the safe and unsafe
structures has to be made incorporating the
details about their designing and method of
construction.
 Loss of life and property need to be documented
and published.
 Counselling need to be done to removes the fear
psychosis.
An in-depth evaluation of pre-earthquake measures
needs to be done. Shortcomings, if any, need to be
removed and plan, if required, may be modified.
The assessment of the case study of the past
earthquakes vividly showed the disastrous effects, causes
of the major destructions, casualty, shortcomings in
responses, remedial measures, action to be taken up in
fighting earthquake disaster.
Damaged to Buildings & Structures:
Reinforced concrete multi- storey buildings in India ,
for the first time, have been subjected to a ground motion
shaking in Bhuj earthquake(January 26, 2001). It has
been observed that the principal reasons of failure may be
accounted to soft stories, floating columns, mass
irregularities, poor qualities of construction materials and
faulty construction practices, inconsistence earth
response, soil and foundation effect and pounding of
adjacent structures.
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International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, Volume 2, Issue 11, November 2012)
In Ahmedabad there are approximately 750 high-rise
buildings out of which three G+10 buildings collapsed
and 88 buildings of varying height up to G+4 have
significantly been found damaged.
The foundations in private buildings generally consist
of an isolated footing with a depth about 1.5 m for G+4
buildings and 2.7 to 3.5 for G+10 buildings. The plan
sizes of footing are usually 1.2m X 2.4m. There were no
tie beams interconnecting the footing, and plinth beams
connecting the column at the ground storey level. The
isolated foundation have been designed assuming bearing
capacity of soil as 250N/m2 though the investigation after
the collapsed shows lower value at the foundation level
(200KN/m2).
It has been observed that most of the buildings are
designed for gravity loads, with a few considering
earthquake forces with ductile detailing practice. The
materials used in the constructions were M15 grade
concrete for G+4 storeyed buildings and M20 grade
concrete for G+10 storeyed buildings with Fe 415
reinforcement.
Remote villagers are being assisted to rebuild their
traditional method of water collection, surface pools and
shallow wells which had fallen in to despair. Increased
water
availability together with health education,
improving food security, health and prosperity of the
area.
The Gujarat earthquake is very significant from the
point of view earthquake disaster mitigation in India. The
problems observed in this disaster are no different from
other major recent earthquakes in the world. The issues
in the recovery and reconstruction phases are: the proper
understanding risk among different stake holders,
training and confidence building among the professionals
and masons with appropriate planning strategies. The
quake has provided numerous examples of geo-technical
and structural failures. The traditional wisdom of design
and construction practices of engineered building
prevalent in this country came under criticism for the first
time. It has triggered comprehensive understanding on
what needs to be done in this regard.
CASE STUDY II: SIKKIM EARTHQUAKE, 2011.
A powerful earthquake of 6.9 on Richter scale rocked
Sikkim on September 18,2011. This earthquake caused
huge destruction of property and loss of lives.
The epicentre of the earthquake was located at 27.723
degree north Latitude and 88.064 east longitude, about 68
km north west of Gangtok, at the Depth of only 19.7 km
below the surface. Though the magnitude of the
earthquake was so high, by virtue of remoteness of the
epicentre, sparse population and infrastructures, toll of
life and destruction were not devastated as could be.
The Response:
The response within India was
immediate. The National and State Governments quickly
provided assistance in many forms, cash, medicines,
foods, shelters, transports, relief workers etc. More than
185 NGOs with their trained personnel and volunteers
sprang in to action.
Search and Rescue teams soon arrived from
Switzerland, Russia, United Kingdom, and Turkey to
find and rescue the survivors buried under debris. Relief
teams and essential goods supply soon come from 38
countries as well as United Nations agencies, may
international NGOs, such as Red Cross.
The Australian Government committed 2.5 million
Australian Dollars to relief organization working in
Gujarat to provide trauma counselors for the distressed,
to set up aid distribution points for emergency foods,
medicines, water, blankets, turpuline etc. to help
thousands of children return to school, to build a 350 bed
emergency hospital in Bhuj, to conduct widespread
vaccination for disease like measles and to prevent
diseases through emergency sanitation measures.
Causes: The earthquake was caused due to the shallow
strip-slip, faulting from an intraplate source within the
over-riding Eurasian plate.
Effects of the Earthquake:
The impact of the earthquake was so great that the
shock or seismic waves spread out in the entire
Northeastern India, Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh,
Jharkhand and extend the effects even to the
neighbouring countries like Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh
and China.
Rehabilitation: Three years after the devastation much
has been rebuilt but there was still much for the effected
persons to rebuild. Where previously houses may have
been hurriedly built to meet shelter needs without
recognizing local needs, now people being more involved
with design and building of their new houses which are
better able to withstand earthquakes. The windows are
strengthened with steel frames.
 87 people died in the earthquake, 70 in India, Seven
in China, six in Nepal and one person in Bhutan.
Many people were left homeless.
 682 out of 779 school buildings were damaged.
6497 houses were damaged in the north Sikkim, the
quake’s epicentre.
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International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, Volume 2, Issue 11, November 2012)
 Extensive damage was caused to National Highway
-31(Siliguri to Gangtok) and NH-31A (Gangtok to
Chungthang). More than 30 landslides were caused.
NH-31A became fully operational only after more
than a month.
 The barracks, buildings of Indo Tibetan Border
Police(ITBP) stationed in Sikkim, who pioneered in
the rescue operation were also badly damaged.
 The power supply was disrupted for little more than
three days and water supply for about 13 days.
 The initial estimate of infrastructural damage in the
state was approximately Rs.10,000 crore($22.3
billion).
 Most of the structure constructed under various
projects undertaken in the villages were able to
withstand the tremors, except those that were in the
northern District, near the epicentre.
However, there is a need to get vulnerability
assessment of these buildings and get them rectified,
even if it means reconstructing some of the
buildings, specially schools, remembering the
disastrous destruction in the northern part of the
State.
 Government had started building of 6,000 durable
houses , the primary need for rehabilitations . Funds
has been made available to construct these houses.
However, even after a year of the disastrous
earthquake which struck the State, not a single
house had been completed. The persistence of
apathy of the Authority towards mitigation even
after such a disastrous destruction would definitely
put the state in tenterhook in the event of repeat of
such natural disaster.
Putting in mind the destruction aggravated , loss of
lives suffered because of inaccessible conditions due to
geographical, geophysical , poor connectivity etc. and
being fallen in hazardous region, one of the most
earthquake risk zone, a revamping approach to tackle
natural hazards is highly demanded.
The Response:
The government machinery failed to take immediate
responses
on
that
fateful
night
of
18th
September,2011.This earthquake completely exposed the
ill-preparedness and unresponsive attitude of the
Government forces to come to the rescue of valuable
lives.
The army units and ITBP battalions located in Sikkim
were the first to response for search and rescue, first aid
and for providing immediate relief. By this time crucial
golden hour had long been elapsed. Had the
Government/Authority responded immediately after the
main tremors by requesting help from local uniform
forces stationed in the state many precious lives could
have been saved.
NDMA (National Disaster Management Authority
rushed 10 teams of NDRF to Sikkim by special planes
for search and rescue operation. They reached Bagdogra
between 0200 hr and 0300 hr on September 19, 2011.
They could not proceed further from Siliguri to Gangtok
as lone Highway , NH-31 was blocked by more than 30
landslides enroute and there is no airport in Sikkim. The
NDRF could reach Gangtok late in the evening, more
than 24 hrs after the earthquake had struck the state.
The local volunteers consisting of young men and
women helped in the search and rescue operations,
guided the first responders from outside the state. They
also managed the makeshift relief camps for those whose
houses had either been destroyed, developed cracks or
had been declared unsafe to live in.
IV.
CONCLUSION
Earthquake hazard is one of the most deadly
phenomenons which claimed the large
number of
lives without any warning. We can not prevent
earthquake from occurring. Therefore, we have to learn
to live with the earthquake hazard and try to minimise its
adverse impact on human civilization. It has been
observed that we think to this hazard only in the wake of
the particular event and with the lapse of time, political,
official and public interest diminishes. As a result a large
amount of money is spent on relief and rehabilitation.
Concerted effort of planners, administrators, engineers,
architects, builders, promoters, financers, etc. with strict
enforcement of building codes for construction of
masonry structures, even for small housing complex in
the earthquake prone zone and strict legislation of land
use may help the mitigation of earthquake hazards.
Earthquake disaster mitigation plan should not be
consider as an isolated effort and it cannot start and end
with each disaster.
Rehabilitaion:
 Prime Minister initially announced a relief package
of Rs.1,000 crore in the immediate aftermath of the
disaster.
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International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, Volume 2, Issue 11, November 2012)
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