The Immortals
The Greek Gods
THE IMMORTALS –
THE GREEK GODS
State Collection
of Antiquities and
Glyptothek Munich
This brochure is a collection of the panel
texts from the special
exhibition “The Immortals – The Greek
Gods” in the State
Collection of Antiquities and Glyptothek
Munich 2012/2013. On
the occasion of this
exhibition, a 600-page
catalogue has been
published with over
850 illustrations, most
of which are in colour.
The catalogue is available at the museum
counters or at
info@antike-amkoenigsplatz.mwn.de
at a price of 25 Euros
(plus shipping costs).
The gods of the Greeks possess human form. They are
neither almighty, nor omnipresent nor omniscient. What
essentially distinguishes them from humans is that they
are immortal. The myths chronicle their human weaknesses at great length. Yet for mortals the purpose of
divine action is not always evident.
It was not the prophets nor the priests, but poets – first
and foremost Homer and Hesiod – who shaped the
image of the Greek gods. Subsequent authors can however represent the myth differently.
There are so many gods that even the ancient authors
admit that they do not know them all. Out of the many,
a small, clear circle stands out: the ‘Olympic’ gods, socalled after their mutual abode where they also meet in
council. The god of the sky, Zeus, is their undisputed
sovereign. The father of gods and men secures his regency by means of his divine children, Athena, Hermes,
Artemis and Apollo, all of whom are obedient to him.
Hesiod, modern bronze
replica of a portrait from
the 2nd century B.C.
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The Greek Gods
and their Progeny
The Greek gods are named after their home on Mount
Olympus, the mountain of the gods. Only twelve main
gods number among the ‘Olympic gods‘ in the narrower
sense. The composition of this group was the subject of
controversy even in ancient times. According to written
sources, Hestia, the goddess of the hearth, is almost
always included, whereas Dionysos is not. Neither
does Hades, the brother of Zeus and ruler of the underworld, attend the councils on Olympus with his wife
Persephone.
In art, however, there is hardly a god who is portrayed
more often than Dionysos. So the god of wine frequently
takes the place of Hestia, of whom there are very few
portrayals, in depicted assemblies of the Twelve
Olympians.
Older generations of deities preceding the Olympians are
known to us only from written sources. We find no trace
of them being worshipped, and they do not play a role
in visual art. The gods beget mortal children together
with humans. Kings and noble families often claim descendancy from such demigods.
Homer, modern bronze
replica of a portrait from
the 2nd century B.C.
The gods can be worshipped everywhere, but they also
have favourite places where they experience particular
reverence. A large part of religious life takes place in their
sanctuaries in the form of cultic rituals: donations, sacrifices, votive offerings and prayer. In some places, huge
temples are built for them, but the only item that is really
essential in a sanctuary is the altar.
Portrayals of the gods range from colossal idols made of
gold and ivory to unpretentious figurines made of clay.
But most of the portrayals of the Greek gods are found
on vessels that are not intended for cultic use. This shows
how ever-present the gods and their deeds are in human
perception.
Greek cults are also available to non-Greeks; grand consecrations of oriental rulers bear witness to this. The
Greek pantheon is also open for new gods. So over the
course of the centuries, new cults, both Greek and nonGreek, are added. Ever since the Hellenistic period, the
cult of the deified ruler plays an increasingly important
role. All of these deities can be worshipped alongside
one other. Only when Christianity arrives, which does not
tolerate other gods, is the old religion finally ousted.
Chaos
Erebos (Darkness) – Nyx (Night)
Kronos – Rheia
Koios – Phoibe
Hestia
Leto
POSEIDON
Hades
with Zeus
Eros
Gaia (Earth) – Ouranos (Sky, son of Gaia)
Okeanos – Thetis
DEMETER
ZEUS–HERA
Iapetos
Dione
with Zeus
Atlas
with Zeus
Prometheus
Maia
with Zeus
ARTEMIS
APOLLO
Asklepios
Persephone ATHENA
HEPHAISTOS
Harmonia – Kadmos
Medusa
Pegasos
ARES
Chrysaor
APHRODITE
HERMES
Pan
Semele
with Zeus
DIONYSOS
Theseus
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Herakles Perseus
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Odysseus
Zeus
Zeus is the supreme Greek god. He can use his power at
any time and against anyone. He is mostly depicted as a
mature, benevolent man, bearded and with flowing hair.
In majestic posture he sits calmly on his throne, holding a
long sceptre in his left hand. He usually lets others carry
out his will. His behaviour thus corresponds exactly with
that of an earthly ruler in early times.
Zeus is however also the weather god wielding weapons,
the lightning thrower and cloud gatherer. His attributes
and mightiest weapons are the bolt of lightning and the
thunderbolt. Zeus’s sanctuaries are normally situated on
mountains far away from human settlements. As the god
of the heavens he is frequently accompanied by an eagle.
Zeus excels all other gods in sexual virility. He has liaisons
with a large number of divine and mortal women. He is
very resourceful in achieving his aims unrecognised and
very often assumes a different form. He approaches Leda
in the form of a swan; he bears Europa away disguised as
a bull. His divine spouse is however without question his
sister Hera. Their children are Ares, Hephaistos, Hebe
Zeus, bronze figurine,
after 69 A.D.
and Eileithyia. But the children he conceives with other
women acquire greater power: Apollo, Artemis, Athena,
Hermes and Dionysos. They comply with his wishes and
secure his power.
In Greek mythology, the ascendency of Zeus to become
the most powerful god is a violent one. Even his birth
is dramatic. His mother gives birth to him secretly on
Mount Ida on Crete, as his father Kronos swallows all
his children for fear of being displaced. After his victory
over the old gods and demons Zeus puts the world in
order and gives mortals a new legal order. He is the
patron not only of house and family but also of the state.
Zeus is revered by all Greeks as the one universal god.
The Etruscans model their supreme god Tinia on his
example, whom the Romans in turn equate with their
supreme god Jupiter. Like Zeus he has an eagle as his
companion. The mighty bird serves also as the standard
of the Roman legions, but never however as an abstract
State coat of arms. This does not exist in the ancient
world.
Tinia, Etruscan terracotta
head, 300–250 B.C.
Zeus, Attic wine mixing
vessel, around 470 B.C.
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Hera
The judgement of Paris
with Hera (centre), Etruscan
amphora, around 540 B.C.
Hera, Attic drinking cup,
470/60 B.C.
Hera is the spouse and sister of Zeus, the supreme god.
The queen of the gods is distinguished by her majestic
bearing, her noble attire, a crown, frequently also a
sceptre and a pomegranate. The last is a symbol of
fertility. Hera is a paragon for brides and married women.
Their function is to bring legitimate offspring into the
world. Hera and her daughter, the goddess of childbirth,
Eileithyia, come to the aid of women in childbirth.
Notwithstanding her high rank among the gods, her
cult is not to be found everywhere, but only in particular
regions of the Greek world such as the Peloponnese,
Boeotia, Samos and in Southern Italy. Here, Hera plays an
important role in political communities. She is called the
cow-eyed on account of her beautiful eyes. Female cattle, the most noble of sacrificial animals, are the due of
Hera. Many of her sanctuaries lie outside the towns
in fertile pasturage.
Hera is however above all the goddess of weddings and
marriage. She keeps her distance from other men and in
portrayals occasionally appears in the company of a
veiled figure, the personification of modesty and morality
(Aidos). Her wedding with Zeus – the sacred wedding –
is the archetype for the marriage of mortals, although
marriage between brother and sister does not conform to
social norms even in ancient Greece. The female destiny,
from virgin to wife and her cohabitation with the male,
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Juno, clay lamp,
2nd/3rd century A.D.
is Hera’s essential sphere. In the practice of the cult it is
above all adult women who turn to her. Hera is however
by no means a mother goddess such as Demeter. Her
relationship with her own children is frequently not
marked by motherly love.
In mythology Hera mostly appears as cantankerous and
haughty. Quarrels with her spouse Zeus on account of
his extra-marital escapades are an everyday matter.
Hera reacts jealously to his love affairs and punishes
relentlessly every disregard of her rightful position. She
pursues her spouse’s lovers with boundless hate and
makes life difficult for their illegitimate off-spring.
The Italian Juno is the counterpart of the Greek Hera.
Nevertheless the goddess has greater importance in
Rome than in Greece. In addition to her role as the
protectress of marriage she also acts as protectress of
the local community.
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Poseidon
Poseidon is the god of the sea. His younger brothers are
Zeus and Hades, who rule the air and the underworld.
Poseidon embodies the unrest, the effervescent agitation,
the violence and impermanence that are characteristic
of his element. He is thus the opposite of Zeus, who
radiates calm and supremacy.
The rest of the sea gods are subordinated to Poseidon.
He is not, like them, portrayed with the body of a snake
or a fish, but in human form and mostly naked. Poseidon
is an imposing figure, strong and muscular. However,
without his characteristic attributes – the trident and the
fish – he is often not clearly distinguishable from other
father-figure deities.
Poseidon is the oldest of the Olympic gods. To him
humans sacrifice bulls, the most exclusive of offerings.
The other gods respect him. But Zeus is undisputedly
the stronger of the two.
Council of the gods with
Poseidon (second from
right), Attic amphora,
around 510 B.C.
Poseidon, pelike from
Southern Italy, around
370 B.C.
Poseidon, bronze figurine,
150–130 B.C.
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Poseidon stands for the menacing violence of the sea,
which he churns up with his trident. Helmsmen on the
high seas do not turn to him for help, but to Zeus’
daughter Athena. Nevertheless, after military victories
at sea, the Greeks dedicate ships, gifts and shrines to
Poseidon.
Cults and celebrations in honour of Poseidon are not very
numerous. They usually take place on the Peloponnese.
The Isthmian Games that are celebrated near Corinth in
his honour rank among the most important sporting
competitions of ancient times. The marks of his trident
in the Erechtheion, where he causes a salt-water well to
spring up, is one of the most important ritual places on
the Acropolis of Athens. It bears witness to the contest
between Poseidon and Athena over Attica, which Zeus’
daughter won.
Poseidon’s consort is Amphitrite, the mother of Triton. In
later visual art, the latter is often portrayed in multiple
form. Together with the Nereids, the good-natured sea
nymphs, the Tritons form the swarming escort of Poseidon and Amphitrite. Like Zeus, Poseidon also fathers
children of other women. However, here too the savagery
of the mighty sea god becomes apparent. He has intercourse with monsters such as the Gorgon, Medusa.
Ghastly creatures such as Polyphemos, the Cyclops, and
the giant Antaeus are his offspring.
The Etruscans worshipped Nethuns as the god of fresh
and sea water, the Romans venerated Neptune.
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Apollo
Apollo, terracotta head,
late 5th/early 4th century B.C.
Apollo (left) punishing
Tityos, Attic drinking cup,
460/50 B.C.
Apollo is the god of poetry and music. As Phoebus
Apollo, he embodies purity and sunlight. The god is
marked by his long curly, well groomed hair and laurel
wreath.
He is the son of Zeus and Leto, as well as the brother
of Artemis. Apollo is known as the father of the famous
ancient singers Orpheus and Linus. Contrary to the
ecstatic elements of Dionysian songs, his music is
characterised by measure and harmony.
Apollo possesses eternal youth. He is portrayed with
an athletic body and armed with bow and arrow or as
muse-leader and god of the arts, wearing a garment that
reaches to his ankles and holding a string instrument, the
kithara. It is not until the time of the Roman Empire that
he is depicted in soft, lavish, graceful body forms.
The muses are the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne,
the goddess of memory. Together with Apollo, they
delight the gods with songs and dances. As patronesses
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of the musical arts they inspire the poets. Since Hellenism, they have been responsible for various spheres,
from poetry and literature, to music, theatre and astronomy.
Apollo is also the god of revenge. Relentlessly he takes
action against those who violate the prevailing order. He
carries out Zeus’ will whilst displaying inhuman mercilessness and cruelty, as only Athena is otherwise known to
do. His bow brings sickness and death.
But Apollo is also the god of purity. He atones for crimes
and pardons evildoers. This also makes him the god
of healing and oracles. For both the physician and the
oracle show the way to the cleansing of one’s sins. His
role of fending off evil is closely linked with his healing
function.
The largest cult site of Apollo is located at Delphi. It is
closely connected with his visionary power. He bestows
his gift upon the Pythia, who makes prophecies sitting
on a tripod. The oracle holds immense political influence.
In the Greek world it is recognised as the highest judicial
authority. Various cities acknowledge Apollo as guarantor
for state order.
The Etruscans worship Apulu/Aplu. For the Romans,
Apollo is above all a god who cleanses sickness and
blood guilt.
Apollo (right) with muse,
Attic amphora, around
430 B.C.
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Artemis
Artemis is the goddess of the hunt. In this capacity she
wears a maidenly short garment and is equipped with a
bow, arrows and a quiver. She is sometimes accompanied
by the nymphs, female nature demons.
Her connection with wild animals is often emphasised
in early pictures in antiquity. As the winged mistress of
animals she rules over untamed nature. Stags are her
most frequent companions. The power of the old
goddess of the hunt stretches even further. Her rapid
bow-manoeuvre can bring instant death. Executions of
criminals in antiquity often take place before portrayals
of Artemis.
Artemis, gold plating from
Eastern Greece, around
650 B.C.
Artemis, terracotta figurine,
around 350 B.C.
The goddess keeps her distance from mortals. Artemis
prefers to reside in untouched nature. She unrelentingly
punishes every malefactor, particularly if they have offended against the rules of the hunt or of chastity. The
saga of Iphigenia in Tauris even associates the goddess
with cruel human sacrifices.
Since time immemorial her care is aimed at defenceless
young lives – both mortals and animals. In Brauron in
Attica young girls place themselves as little she-bears
under her protection. Artemis’ care comes to an end
when her protégés come of adult age. For girls this
point is often reached at the age of 15, when they are
disposed of in marriage.
Artemis can however also assist women in childbirth.
After a safe birth they dedicate expensive garments to
her.
Myth has it that just one day after her own birth Artemis
helps her mother Leto to deliver her brother Apollo on
the Cycladic island of Delos. Artemis repeatedly appears
at the side of Apollo, in assemblies of the gods as well
as in altercations with heroes and malefactors.
Artemis is also associated with Zeus, the father of the
gods, and Ares, the god of war. Sacrifices are made
before battle to obtain her goodwill.
Artemis is a popular goddess, to whom monumental
temples are erected. The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
counts as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient
World. Artemis is venerated by members of all classes
in all circumstances of life.
The Roman Diana is initially the goddess of the moon
and of fertility. She protects girls and women. Later, like
the Greek Artemis, she becomes the goddess of hunting.
Artemis, Attic anointing oil
vessel, around 470 B.C.
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Hermes
Hermes is the messenger of the gods. He is further
known as the guardian of travellers, merchants and
thieves, as well as the assistant of gods and heroes.
He is the god of shepherds and the guide who escorts
souls into the underworld. The kerykeion, or caduceus,
is his attribute. His shoes and cap often bear wings,
signifying the god’s ability to arrive anywhere in no time.
Always under way himself, Hermes supports mortals
along their journeys. He can often be found on Greek
roads, in the form of stone herms. Herms also mark the
boundaries between wild regions and villages surrounded
by fields. This speaks for Hermes as a god of boundaries,
particularly since he often transcends them.
Hermes is the messenger of Zeus. He is sent by the
supreme Olympian to inform other deities of his decisions. As a ‘minor’ god, he is not honoured with large
temples. Even so, he is ever-present thanks to the
Mercury, bronze figurine,
Mercury, bronze figurine,
2nd century A.D.
1st century B.C.
countless herms dedicated to him. Mortals often feel a
closer connection to him than to other divinities. The
placing of food on herm-pedestals, to which all travellers
may help themselves, is a frequently practiced ritual.
Accordingly, Hermes is also the giver of all things good
and gracious.
The god further serves as the supporter and leader of
heroes – as for instance in the Trojan War. In addition, he
assists his half-brother, Herakles, with his twelve labours.
Hermes also acts as guide to the gods, above all escorting their chariots in mythological wedding processions.
As the god of nature, Hermes maintains close contact
with the nymphs and joins in their round-dancing. He
is also closely associated with the world of young shepherds. He is worshipped as ram bearer and is considered
to be an increaser of cattle. Pan is his son. As the god
of youth, Hermes is also venerated on the palaestra, the
sports ground. His speed and skill are exemplary.
His ability to descend into the underworld and return
from it safely sets the god distinctly apart from other
deities. Therefore he serves as the guide of souls, escorting the dead into Hades.
The Roman counterpart of the Greek deity, Hermes, is
Mercury. In Rome, however, the god is merely associated
with commerce.
Hermes, Attic amphora,
510/500 B.C.
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