• Carrolus Linnaeus (1707-
1778)
– The binomial system: Genus and species
– e.g., Macrocystis pyrifera
(Giant kelp); Medialuna californiensis (halfmoon)
Old 5 Kingdom Classification
a broader classification system that also shows evolutionary relationships
• A Hierarchical system:
Order
Class species
Genus
Family
Phylum
Kingdom
• 5 Kingdom system: a system that considers structure and complexity as well as other characteristics including metabolic strategies.
• 3 Kingdom system:
– K. Bacteria
– K. Archaea
– K. Eukarya
3 Domain
Taxonomy of life
The Taxonomic Naming System
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Comparative Anatomy: Cladistics and taxonomy Figure 25.8 The connection between classification and phylogeny
• Biological Species Concept
– Group of reproducing individuals
• “Groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups”
• Morphological S. C.
– Groups of “same” looking things
• Phylogenetic S. C.
– Group of individuals distinct in their ancestry and descent
• Other S. C…
• What is a “Species”?
• Biological Species
Concept defines species as “groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups”
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Horse Evolution
• The cone of increasing diversity vs. the model of decimation and diversification
Decimation and Diversification
• Goal-oriented science that seeks to counter the current rapid decrease in biodiversity
• “The Biodiversity crisis”- human activities alter ecosystem processes, alter landscape and trigger extinctions
• Biophilia- innate connection to nature and life
• Anthrocentric
– Species are a natural resource for food, fibers, medicines, etc.
– Do all species have an innate value? Are some worth more than others? Who decides?
– Ecosystem services
• Often overlooked benefits to humans:
Air, water, soil, detoxification, decomposition, pollination, seed dispersal, nutrient cycling, protection from UV, moderation of weather…aesthetic beauty and infinite source of wonder
• Estimated at $33 trillion/year (1997)
– 2x global GNP!
– Other studies estimate at only
5-10 trillion dollars
– Economic benefits of biodiversity exceed costs of conservation
• The big conclusion from the study:
– Environmental 'externalities' - economists' term for benefits from resources that belong to no one in particular and so are enjoyed for free- are relatively huge . We should do something to account for them in environmental regulations. What is the cost to NOT protecting the environment?
3

• Genetic diversity
• Species diversity
• Habitat / community diversity
1. Genetic diversity
– Variation within and between populations
– Genetic diversity allows for adaptation to changing conditions
– If populations loose genetic diversity they loose adaptive ability
– Once genetic diversity is lost it takes evolutionary time to get it back
2. Species diversity
– Loss of species richness
– 13% of 9,040 bird species threatened
– 47% of all plants worldwide may be threatened
– 20% of freshwater fish extinct of threatened
– Since 1900, 123 extinct freshwater vert and inverts in
North America
– Many animals are in the
Hundred Heartbeats club
3. Habitat / community diversity
– Extinction of one species could have negative impact on others in the system
– Each system can have an important impact on the whole biosphere
– Links are hard to study and harder to predict.
Four Five major threats to biodiversity
1.
Habitat destruction
2.
Introduced species
3.
Overexploitation
4.
Disruption of food chains
5.
Climate Change
Biodiversity “Hotspots”
• 1,500+ species, 70%+ habitat loss
• Plant-centric, but account for ~60% of animal species
4

1.
Habitat destruction
• Single greatest threat to biodiversity
• Over 70% of extinct, endangered, threatened species from loss of habitat
• 93% of reefs are damaged- 1/3 of fish species are in coral reefs which make up only 0.2% of ocean.
• Large variety of human uses impact habitat loss
Living, food, recreation, materials, fuels,
• Landscape fragmentation
• Habitat size is not the only issue, contiguous pieces are also important
2. Introduced species
• Second biggest problem- linked to 40% of extinctions
• “Exotic species”- species humans have moved from one location to another, sometime intentionally, sometimes not
• Successful exotics often disrupt their new community, prey on and/or compete with native species
• 50, 000 in U.S. alone, damage control = $130 billion
• Some examples…
Edge Effects
-diff species
-temp
-water
-wind
-fire
• First collected on west coast in S.F.- 1989
• Moved to Bodega Bay by 1993
• Found in Monterey by 1994
www.mbayaq.org/cr/seafoodwatch.asp
3. Overexploitation
– Human harvesting of plants and animals exceeds ability of populations to rebound
– Species especially susceptible are those with low reproductive rates
– The “inexhaustible seas”
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4.
Disruption of food chains
• Loss of one species in an ecosystem can have negative impacts on there species
• Remove the prey, the predators will suffer
• Loss of Keystone species
• Since most organism do not depend on just a single prey species, this can be a very difficult thing to quantify
* The Fifth Major Threat
• Human influenced climate and ocean change
• A changing climate will drive all of the previous threats, and add in others
Recovery from Disturbance Multiple Interacting Threats
Most populations are dealing with simultaneous threats
• Rotifers with warming, harvesting and movement
• Can result in rapid population shifts over short time
Restoration Ecology
• Restoration ecology is the study of recuperating degraded, damaged or destroyed ecosystems through active human intervention
– current extinction rate are 1000 to 10,000 times the
‘normal’ rate (E.O. Wilson 1988)
• The fundamental difference between conservation biology and restoration ecology lies in their philosophical approaches to the same problem:
– Conservation biology attempts to preserve and maintain existing habitat and biodiversity.
– In contrast, Restoration ecology assumes that environmental degradation and population declines are somewhat reversible processes. Therefore, targeted human intervention can lead to habitat and biodiversity recovery and eventual gains
• restore a natural disturbance
• hastening natural successional trajectories
• increase the effective size of a habitat by simply adding area or by planting habitat corridors that link two isolated fragments
• monitoring and management are crucial for the long-term stability
• working toward a single desired stable state
The goal of restoration is not to immediately recreate replacement ecosystems, rather to “jumpstart” natural recuperative processes.
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• Biomes - Areas sharing similar climate, topographic and soil conditions, and roughly comparable communities.
– Temperature and precipitation are among the most important determinants in biome distribution.
• Evapotranspiration
– Influenced by prevailing landforms.
• Major regional ecosystems
• Developed from plants biologists
• Primarily based on dominant plants
• Lakes
• Rivers
• Streams
• Wetlands
• Estuaries
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Wetlands
• Land surface is saturated or covered with water at least part of the year.
– Swamps - Wetlands with trees.
– Marshes - Wetlands without trees.
– Bogs and Fens - Waterlogged soils that tend to accumulate peat.
• Water usually shallow enough to allow full sunlight penetration.
• Trap and filter water, and store runoff.
Estuaries
• Bays or semi-enclosed bodies of brackish water that form where rivers enter the ocean.
– Usually carry rich sediments.
• Fan-shaped sediment deposit (delta) formed on shallow continental shelves.
• Intertidal
• Coral Reefs
• Oceanic
• Many different organisms
• Warm, clear water
• Zooxanthellae
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