Terrestrial Flora and Fauna Investigation in EIA: significance, methods,
issues and concerns.
Maria Lourdes Quiatchon-Moreno
Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau,
Forestry Campus, College, Laguna 4031
EIA Review Committee
Email: mqmoreno@yahoo.com
Contact No. 09295534995
The role of flora and fauna investigations in Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) is to provide sufficient data to allow a complete identification,
prediction and evaluation of potential impacts of proposed developments upon
that flora and fauna. This is to ensure that that potential impacts, where
identified, are avoided or reduced if at all possible. Use of standard
methodologies should enable impacts to be quantified and impact predictions to
be reviewed in a systematic way. This paper shall detail common methods being
used in baseline flora and fauna assessment as well as the issues and concerns
observed during the Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Hierarchy for
mitigation are likewise discussed. Recommendations based on observations and
findings during the review process are forwarded.
Terrestrial Flora and Fauna Investigation in EIA: significance, methods, issues
and concerns
The Philippines is one of the most biologically diverse countries in the
world.Its biological wealth, represented by its flora and fauna, is enormous and has
an extraordinarily high rate of endemicity . (DENR-PAWB, GIZ, Silliman University
2001). In fact, the country has 576 species of birds, 195 (34%) of which are endemic,
174 mammalian species, 111 (64%) of which are endemic, and 258 reptilian and
amphibian species, 214 (73%) of which are endemic (DENR-PAWB 2009,
Conservation International 2006 as cited in Lasco et al. 2013;Oliver and Heany,
1997 in Maala 2001)).
Flora and fauna are the plant and animal life of a region in a period of time.
That may sound simple, but the ecosystem created by the interdependence of these
two life forms is not simple at all. The very air we breathe and the food we eat, the
medicines that cure us, and the water that keeps us alive would not exist were it not
for flora and fauna. All things in an ecosystem are interdependent and should be
conserved (Wilkinson 2011).
Conservation of biodiversity is among the ten major strategies adopted in the
Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development, which aims to achieve economic
growth without depleting the stock on natural resources and degrading the
environment. Towards this end, the government establishes the Integrated Protected
Area System. Also, DAO 2012-07- Institutionalizing and implementing reforms in the
Philippine Mining sector, section 4 of which specifies the areas closed for mining
application and all pending mining applications in the identified areas shall be denied
upon the effectivity of the Executive Order.
The role of flora and fauna investigations in Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) is to provide sufficient data to allow a complete identification,
prediction and evaluation of potential impacts of proposed developments upon that
flora and fauna. This is to ensure that that potential impacts, where identified, are
avoided or reduced if at all possible. Use of standard methodologies should enable
impacts to be quantified and impact predictions to be reviewed in a systematic way
so as to lead to a good development plan.
Methodology for Terrestrial Flora and Fauna Assessment.

Desk-based evaluation of all relevant information.
This is done through review of existing literatures and databases and sitespecific information for the study area (as defined by project development
area). A list of potentially threatened flora and fauna species should be made,
a land cover/vegetation map should be secured and the area of the proposed
development project be overlayed so as to determine the direct impact areas
for flora and fauna. This will be used to delineate and stratify sampling sites
for flora and fauna assessment.

Baseline Studies. An important first stage in gaining an understanding of
how the system might be changed by the proposed project is to take a “snapshot” of the existing conditions – the baseline environment. The baseline
survey provides the necessary information on the site-specific environmental
setting of the project, and should include information about the components of
biodiversity (ecosystems and species, in particular) that may be affected.
Baseline studies establish a foundation for impact prediction, for monitoring
predicted impacts and for evaluating the success of mitigation measures.
Things to consider in the baseline survey:


Site characterization. This should include the location of the study area and
the different vegetation/habitat types.
Survey methods. It is advisable to adopt standard survey methodologies,
which are widely accepted so that baseline information gathered could be
easily verified and results of different studies compared. The details of the
baseline surveys including the methodologies, adopted, locations, time,
frequency and duration of surveys should be stated clearly in the EIA report
for reference. A combination of the different methods are being used:
Transects. Transects are usually used to survey changes in vegetation along
an environmental gradient, from a source of impact or through different
habitats.The Line Transect method is to count the plant species and their
abundance that touch the transect line. Belt transect was done by was done
by laying a transect line with 50m length and 10m width on each side of the
transect line. All the trees within the belt transect with diameters greater than
5cm at breast height will be identified, measured for diameter at breast height,
and counted
Quadrats. This are used to define sample area within the study site. The
locations of the quadrat chosen should be representative to various
vegetation types present within the study area and usually several quadrats
are sampled to obtain more representative results. Plant species inside the
quadrats are identified, density, frequency and relative cover estimated. This
allows for the computation of the Importance Value Index of species present
in the area.
Transect count This is used to survey birds in large open areas of relatively
uniform habitat. All birds seen or heard on either sides of the transects are
identified and counted up to a distance where birds are still detectable or
within a fixed distance from the observer.
Mistnets. This is used to capture bats and birds. Nets were placed in travel
lanes of bats at dusk and tended constantly. Any captured bats must be
removed individually upon entangled and placed in temporary holding devices
(e.g. cloth bags). The same is done with birds but only at dawn.
Trapping. Box traps with appropriate bait is an effective means for trapping
small terrestrial mammals unharmed. Pitfall traps (i.e., a container placed
below the ground with the opening flush or just below the ground surface)
could also be used to trap small mammals (e.g. shrews) when the animals fall
through the opening into the container.
Active searching. An effective way to survey amphibians and reptiles is by
active searching, particularly during the daytime. This method is applicable for
both nocturnal and diurnal species.

Sampling effort. The baseline survey aims at collecting ecological data
through sampling. The actual sampling effort would generally depend on the
physical size of the site, diversity of the habitats, flora and fauna and
availability of existing ecological baseline information. The environmental
consultants should determine the appropriate amount of sampling effort based
on their professional judgement and actual site situations. In all cases, they
have to ensure that there is adequate samples to be able to gather data
representative of the population of the area.

Duration of the survey. The duration of an ecological baseline survey should
be long enough for gathering the necessary baseline data. Generally, the
duration of an ecological baseline survey should be commensurate with the
scale of the proposed development, the diversity of habitats within the study
area and the diversity of flora and fauna within the study area.

Identification of Important species, endemicity and its conservation
status. These species should be in the priority list for propagation and use in
the rehabilitation of the area to maintain and possibly increase their extant
population

Biodiversity Index. This is quantitative measure that reflects how many
different types (such as species) there are in a dataset, and simultaneously
takes into account how evenly the basic entities (such as individuals) are
distributed among those types.

Evaluation (Impact Analysis)
After establishing the baseline, it is then necessary to work systematically
through the various activities and aspects of development to determine the
likely effects of those activities on the baseline.
The following should be considered:
The nature of the impact (direct or indirect, long term or short term, effects
from cumulative impacts, etc.);
The type of impact (positive – enhancing biodiversity; negative – causing
biodiversity loss; or neutral – no net change).
The likely magnitude of the residual impact (x hectares/area of an
ecosystem or habitat, x number of individuals of a species, etc.).
The level of impact (species or ecosystem level e.g species
richness/diversity. endemicity, vulnerability etc..)
The following reference materials would help in the identification, prediction
and assessment of the impacts of the project on flora and fauna.
AMBAL, R.G.R., M.V. DUYA, M.A. CRUZ, O.G. COROZA, S.G. VERGARA, N. DE
SILVA,N. MOLINYAWE & B. TABARANZA (2012). Key Biodiversity
Areas in the Philippines: Priorities for Conservation. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 4(8): 2788–2796..
Department Administrative Order no 2007-01. Establishing the national list of
threatened philippine plants and their categories, and the llst of other
wildlife species
Department Administrative Order no 2004-15. Establishing The List Of Terrestrial
Threatened Species And Their Categories, And The List Of Other
Wildlife Species Pursuant To Republic Act No. 9147, Otherwise Known
As The Wildlife Resources Conservation And Protection Act Of 2001.
IUCN 2012. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2.
<http://www.iucnredlist.org>
Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 2009
http://www.chm.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=20
9&Itemid=80

Mitigation options and Implementation
Mitigation aim to prevent adverse impacts from occurring or, if this is not
possible, to limit their significance to an acceptable level. A number of categories of
mitigation and a hierarchy of their desirability are illustrated below: (ICCM 2006)
These include (in descending order of priority):
Avoiding impacts by modifying a proposed project location or existing
operation in order to
prevent or limit a possible impact;
Minimizing impacts by implementing decisions or activities that are designed
to reduce the undesirable impacts of a proposed activity on biodiversity;
Rectifying impacts by rehabilitating or restoring the affected environment.;or
by
Compensating for the impact by replacing or providing substitute resources
or environments. Compensatory measures should be used as a last resort
and might include so-called offsets, such as purchasing an area of equivalent
habitat for longer-term protection.
Figure 1. Hierarchy of Biodiversity mitigation measures.

Monitoring and Evaluation
By systematically comparing and assessing changes to biodiversity against
baseline data, companies can evaluate their level of impact and adapt their
behavior accordingly. Proper identification of criteria and indicators should be
done
Some issues and concerns Identified during the EIS review.

Although it is being specified that standard methodologies should be used, a lots
of errors have been seen in the EIS reports (e.g. in stratification, sampling
frequency, computation and even reliability of formula used).

Suitability of scale of Vegetation/habitat /transect /survey point maps.The legibility
of this map is often a matter of concern.

Reliability of information being given in the report (e.g. Scientific names,
Conservation status, Geographical range etc.)This should be scientific and
professional such that any interested parties should be able to review the
findings.

Inconsistencies among reports produced under the same project. The findings
and figures in the main report, the appendices, the environmental monitoring and
Implementation plan, the executive summary etc should be consistent.

The potential impacts on all important habitats and species should be covered in
the field survey and assessment. It could be a serious mistake if it does not
because of its implication on the formulation of mitigation plans.

Sometimes the baseline survey is very comprehensive and gives very detailed
account of the ecological profile of the study area. However, habitats and species
identified in the baseline survey are not covered in the subsequent assessment
and impact evaluation.

Sometimes, Indirect impact of the project are neglected and thus are not
considered in planning a mitigation.

Mismatch between impact evaluation and mitigation measures, There are
instances where an impact is identified and evaluated as significant but no
mitigation measure is proposed in the EIA report while mitigation measures are
recommended for impacts rated as low, minor or insignificant.


Mitigation measure too generic. It is not acceptable to propose a mitigation
measure which is generic with no elaboration at all. All mitigation measures
should be implementable.
Habitat compensation should consider achieving both the physical size and
ecological functions of the habitat lost. The general principles of “no net loss” and
“like for like” should be followed as far as possible.
Conclusion and Recommendation
Predicting the impact of development projects on flora and fauna requires
knowledge on ecology and ecosystem dynamics and the use of standard methods
and protocol. The effectiveness of terrestrial flora and fauna assessment is the
extent to which it identifies, assesses, and finds ways to mitigate or eliminate the
potential negative impacts of a development project, and how well it helps or
improves environmental management and ultimately the state of the environment
along side economic gains. It is recommended that a more stringent monitoring and
evaluation of impacts be implemented to ensure that development doesn’t pose
serious threat to the stability of our ecosystem and the life we live.
Literature Cited
AMBAL, R.G.R., M.V. DUYA, M.A. CRUZ, O.G. COROZA, S.G. VERGARA, N. DE
SILVA,N. MOLINYAWE & B. TABARANZA (2012). Key Biodiversity
Areas in the Philippines: Priorities for Conservation. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 4(8): 2788–2796
DENR-PAWB, GIZ GMBH, SILLIMAN UNIVERSITY. An In-Depth Review of the
NIPAS Law and
Related Statutes on the Establishment and
Management of Protected Areas in the Philippines. Environment and
Rural Development Program Deutsche gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (gIZ) gmbH.
Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance Guidance Note No. 10/2010
Methodologies for Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecological Baseline
Surveys. http://www.epd.gov.hk/eia/hb/materials/GN10.pdf
Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance Guidance Note No. 6/2010
Some Observations on Ecological Assessment From the
Environmental
Impact
Assessment
Ordinance
Perspective
http://www.epd.gov.hk/eia/hb/materials/GN6.pdf
Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan. 2009
http://www.chm.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=20
9&Itemid=80
International Council on Mining and Metals (ICCM). 2006. Good Practice for
Mining and Biodiversity. Ptd by Pennington Fine Colour, London, UK.
LASCO, R., PULHIN, F., AND PULHIN, P. 2013. Guidebook on Mainstreaming
Climate Change in Biodiversity Planning and Management in the
Philippines. World Agroforestry Center, United States Agency for
International Development, Philippines and Department of Natural
Resources.
MAALA, CEFERINO P. Endangered Philippine Wildlife Species with Special
Reference to the Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga Jefferyi) and
Tamaraw (Bubalus Mindorensis) Journal of International Development
and Cooperation, Vol.8, No.1, 2001, pp. 1–17.
WILKINSON, J. C. 2011. The Importance of Flora and Fauna to Human Existence
on Earth. http://www.brighthub.com/environment/scienceEnvironmental/articles/61556.aspx
WOLLONGONG DEVELOPMENT CONTROL PLAN 2009. Chapter E18:
Threatened species impact Assessment.
http://www.wollongong.nsw.gov.au/council/governance/Policies/Chapte
r%20E18%20%20Threatened%20Species%20Impact%20Assessment.
pdf
Terrestrial Flora and Fauna investigation
in EIA: significance, methods, issues
and concerns
Maria Lourdes Q. Moreno
Importance of Flora and Fauna
The air we breathe...
The food we eat...
The medicines that cures us...
And the water that keeps us alive would not exist were it not for flora and
fauna,
All things in an ecosystem are interdependent and every single species
matters
The importance of flora and fauna cannot
be and should not be underestimated.
The Philippines is one of the most biologically diverse countries in
the world.Its biological wealth, represented by its flora and fauna, is
enormous and has an extraordinarily high rate of endemicity . (DENRPAWB, GIZ, Silliman University 2001)
Philippine Fauna
• 576 avian species - 195 (34%) are endemic
• 174 mammalian species -111 (64%) are endemic
• 258 reptilian and amphibian species - 214 (83%) are endemic
The Philippine flora is composed of at least 14000 species, more
than half of which are endemic ,representing five percent of the
world’s flora
(source: DENR PAWB et al. as cited in Lasco et al., 2013)
Conservation of biodiversity is among the ten major strategies
adopted in the Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development, which
aims to achieve economic growth without depleting the stock on
natural resources and degrading the environment.
Towards this end, the government establishes the Integrated Protected
Area System
Also, DAO 2012-07- Institutionalizing and implementing reforms in the
Philippine Mining sector, section 4 of which specifies the areas closed for
mining application
All pending mining applications in the identified
areas shall be denied upon the effectivity of the
Executive Order.
The role of flora and fauna investigations in
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is to provide
sufficient data to allow a complete identification, prediction
and evaluation of potential
impacts of proposed
developments upon that flora and fauna.
This is to ensure that that potential impacts, where
identified, are avoided or reduced if at all possible
Key steps in Terrestrial Flora and Fauna Assessment.
• Desk-based evaluation of all relevant information
This is done through review of existing literatures and
databases and site-specific information for the study area (as
defined by project development area)
• Baseline Studies
An important first stage in gaining an understanding of how
the system might be changed by the proposed project is to
take a “snap-shot” of the existing conditions – the baseline
environment.
Baseline studies establish a foundation for
impact prediction, for monitoring predicted
impacts and for evaluating the success of
mitigation measures.
Things to consider in the baseline survey:
Site characterization
• This should include the location of the study area and the
different vegetation types
Survey methods
• It is advisable to adopt standard survey methodologies,
which are widely accepted so that baseline information
gathered could be easily verified and results of different
studies compared
The commonly used sampling methods are:
(adapted from EIAO Guidance Note No. 10)
Transects. Transects are usually used to survey changes in
vegetation along an environmental gradient, from a source of
impact or through different habitats.
The Line Transect method is to count the plant and their
abundance that touch the transect line.
Belt transect was done by laying a transect line with 50m
length and 10m width on each side of the transect line. All
the trees within the belt transect with diameters greater
than 5cm at breast height will be identified, measured for
diameter at breast height, and counted
species
Quadrats
• This are used to define sample area within the study site
• Plant species inside the quadrats are identified, density,
frequency and relative cover estimated. This allows for
the computation of the Importance Value Index of species
present in the area.
Source: medic.jp
Transect count This is used to survey birds in large open areas of relatively uniform
habitat. All birds seen or heard on either sides of the transects are identified and counted
up to a distance where birds are still detectable or within a fixed distance from the
observer.
Mistnets. This is used to capture bats and birds. Nets were placed in travel lanes of bats
at dusk and tended constantly. Any captured bats must be removed individually upon
entangled and placed in temporary holding devices (e.g. cloth bags). The same is done
with birds but only at dawn.
Trapping. Box traps with appropriate bait is an effective means for trapping small
terrestrial mammals unharmed. Pitfall traps (i.e., a container placed below the ground
with the opening flush or just below the ground surface) could also be used to trap small
mammals (e.g. shrews) when the animals fall through the opening into the container.
Active searching. An effective way to survey amphibians and
reptiles is by active searching, particularly during the daytime.
This method is applicable for both nocturnal and diurnal species.
Site 3 Coordinates: N 14° 08’ 03.4”, E 121° 13’ 39.9”
Elevation: 404 m
Sampling effort. The baseline survey aims at collecting ecological
data through sampling. The actual sampling effort would generally
depend on the physical size of the site, diversity of the habitats, flora
and fauna and availability of existing ecological baseline information.
Duration of the survey. The duration of an ecological baseline
survey should be long enough for gathering the necessary baseline
data. Generally, the duration of an ecological baseline survey should
be commensurate with the scale of the proposed development, the
diversity of habitats within the study area and the diversity of flora
and fauna within the study area.
Identification of Important species, endemicity
and its conservation status. These species should
be in the priority list for propagation and used in
the rehabilitation of the area to maintain and
possibly increase their extant population
Evaluation (Impact Analysis)
After establishing the baseline and possible impacts identified, it
is then necessary to work systematically through the various
activities and aspects of development to determine the likely
effects of those activities on the baseline.
The following should be assessed:
The nature of the impact (direct or indirect, long term or short term, effects from
cumulative impacts, etc.);
The type of impact (positive – enhancing biodiversity; negative – causing biodiversity
loss; or neutral – no net change).
The likely magnitude of the residual impact (x hectares/area of an ecosystem or
habitat, x number of individuals of a species, etc.).
The level of impact (species or ecosystem level e.g species
richness/diversity. endemicity, vulnerability etc..)
Recommended references
• AMBAL, R.G.R., M.V. DUYA, M.A. CRUZ, O.G. COROZA, S.G.
VERGARA, N. DE SILVA,N. MOLINYAWE & B. TABARANZA (2012).
Key Biodiversity Areas in the Philippines: Priorities for
Conservation. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(8): 2788–2796..
• Department Administrative Order no 2007-01. Establishing the
national list of threatened philippine plants and their categories,
and the llst of other wildlife species
• Department Administrative Order no 2004-15. Establishing The List
Of Terrestrial
• Threatened Species And Their Categories, And The List Of Other
Wildlife Species Pursuant To Republic Act No. 9147, Otherwise
Known As The Wildlife Resources Conservation And Protection Act
Of 2001.
• IUCN 2012. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version
2012.2. <http://www.iucnredlist.org>
• Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action
Plan 2009
• http://www.chm.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article
&id=209&Itemid=80
Mitigation options and Implementation
Mitigation aim to prevent adverse impacts from occurring or, if this is not
possible, to limit their significance to an acceptable level. (ICCM 2006)
Avoiding impacts by modifying a proposed project location or existing
operation in order to prevent or limit a possible impact;
Minimizing impacts by implementing decisions or activities that are
designed to reduce the undesirable impacts of a proposed activity on
biodiversity;
Rectifying impacts by rehabilitating or restoring the affected environment.
Compensating for the impact by replacing or providing substitute resources
or environments.
Source: ICCM 2005
Monitoring and Evaluation
By systematically comparing and assessing changes to
biodiversity against baseline data, companies can evaluate
their level of impact and adapt their behavior accordingly.
Proper identification of criteria and indicators should be
done
Some Issues and concerns Identified during the EIS review.
•Although it is being specified that standard methodologies should be used,
a lots of errors have been seen in the EIS reports (e.g. in stratification,
sampling frequency, computation and even reliability of formula used).
• Potential impacts on all important habitats and species
should be covered in the field survey and assessment. It
could be a serious mistake if it does not because of its
implication on the formulation of mitigation plans.
• Sometimes the baseline survey is very comprehensive and
gives very detailed account of the ecological profile of the
study area. However, habitats and species identified in the
baseline survey are not covered in the subsequent
assessment and impact evaluation.
• Indirect impact of the project should not be neglected and
should be considered in planning a mitigation
• Suitability of scale of Vegetation/habitat /transect /survey
point maps.The legibility of this map is often a matter of
concern.
• Reliability of information being given in the report (e.g.
Scientific names, Conservation status, Geographical range
etc.)This should be scientific and professional such that any
interested parties should be able to review the findings.
and mitigation measures, There are instances where an
impact is identified and evaluated as significant but no
mitigation measure is proposed in the EIA report while
mitigation measures are recommended for impacts rated as
low, minor or insignificant.
• It is not acceptable to propose a mitigation measure which
is generic with no elaboration at all. All mitigation measures
should be implementable. Habitat compensation should
consider achieving both the physical size and ecological
functions of the habitat lost. The general principles of “no
net loss” and “like for like” should be followed as far as
possible.
Predicting the impact of development projects on flora and
fauna requires knowledge on ecology and ecosystem
dynamics and the use of standard methods and protocol. The
effectiveness of terrestrial flora and fauna assessment is the
extent to which it identifies, assesses, and finds ways to
mitigate or eliminate the potential negative impacts of a
development project, and how well it helps or improves
environmental management and ultimately the state of the
environment along side economic gains.
It is recommended that a more stringent monitoring and
evaluation of impacts be implemented to ensure that
development doesn’t pose serious threat to the stability of
our ecosystem and the lives we live.
Thank you 