ALPMANN SCHMIDT
Wörlen / Balleis / Angress
Introduction to
English Civil Law
for German-Speaking Lawyers
and Law Students
Vol. 1
5th Edition
2012
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Introduction to English Civil Law
for German-Speaking Lawyers and Law Students
Vol. 1
2012
Begründet von
Dr. iur. utr. Rainer Wörlen (†)
ehemals Professor an der Fakultät Wirtschaftsrecht
Fachhochschule Schmalkalden
fortgeführt von
Dr. iur. Kristina Balleis
Dr. phil. Alexandra Angress
Professorinnen an der Fakultät Wirtschaft und Recht
Hochschule Aschaffenburg
ALPMANN UND SCHMIDT Juristische Lehrgänge Verlagsges. mbH & Co. KG
48149 Münster, Annette-Allee 35, 48001 Postfach 1169, Telefon (0251) 98109-33
AS-Online: www.alpmann-schmidt.de
01 Deckblatt.fm Seite 2 Freitag, 27. Juli 2012 10:34 10
Liebe Leserin, lieber Leser,
wir sind stets bemüht, unsere Produkte zu verbessern. Fehler lassen sich aber nie ganz ausschließen. Sie helfen uns, wenn Sie uns über Druckfehler in diesem Skript oder anderen Printprodukten
unseres Hauses informieren.
E-Mail genügt an „druckfehlerteufel@alpmann-schmidt.de“
Danke
Ihr AS-Autorenteam
Prof. Dr. iur. Kristina Balleis
Prof. Dr. phil. Alexandra Angress
Introduction to English Civil Law, Vol. 1
for German-Speaking Lawyers and Law Students
5th revised edition 2012
ISBN: 978-3-86752-237-3
Verlag Alpmann und Schmidt Juristische Lehrgänge
Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG, Münster
Die Vervielfältigung, insbesondere das Fotokopieren
ist nicht gestattet (§§ 53, 54 UrhG) und strafbar (§ 106 UrhG).
Im Fall der Zuwiderhandlung wird Strafantrag gestellt.
02 Vorwort_deutsch.fm Seite I Mittwoch, 25. Juli 2012 5:07 17
Vorwort
"Unfortunately, an individual’s life must come to an end as inevitably as any book. For
human beings the end is death. We do not know exactly what will happen to us after
death. The only thing we can be sure of is that ‘Death brings heirs.’ The end of a book
does not have to mean its death. Books may live endlessly. …” - „Menschen sterben, Bücher können weiter leben“.
Mit diesen Worten hat Rainer Wörlen, der am 3. November 2009 unerwartet im Alter von
63 Jahren verstarb, zu seinem letzten Kapitel "Law of Succession" in Vol. 2 (3. Aufl.) übergeleitet.
Rainer Wörlen hat eine große Zahl didaktisch herausragender Lehr- und Lernbücher hinterlassen. Wer ihn persönlich gekannt hat, weiß, dass seine Leidenschaft den beiden
Bänden zum englischen Zivilrecht ("Introduction to English Civil Law – for GermanSpeaking Lawyers and Law Students, Vol. 1 + 2") galt. Das geniale Konzept dieser beiden
Bücher, dem (deutschen) Leser eine fremde Rechtsordnung zu erschließen und zugleich
die fremde (Rechts-) Sprache zu vermitteln, geht auf diese Begeisterung zurück. Wir haben es uns zur Aufgabe gemacht, dieses Konzept im Sinne Rainer Wörlens fortzuführen,
welches in seinem nachfolgend abgedruckten Vorwort zur ersten Auflage ausführlich
beschrieben ist. Diese Lektüre, insbesondere des Abschnittes „IV. Zur Arbeitsweise mit
diesem Buch“ sei allen Lesern, die mit dem Buch gewinnbringend arbeiten wollen,
nachdrücklich ans Herz gelegt.
Schon in dem Vorwort aus dem Jahr 1999 wurde auf die große Bedeutung des englischen Rechts hingewiesen. Die Gültigkeit dieser Aussage findet sich durch die fortgeschrittene Globalisierung und Öffnung der Märkte nach Osten und nach Asien heute,
über 10 Jahre später, bestätigt. Internationale Verträge werden heutzutage nicht nur
auf englisch verhandelt und abgeschlossen, sondern sehr häufig dem englischen Recht
unterworfen. Weltweit vertraut man in dieses über Jahrhunderte gewachsene, sehr beständige Recht und setzt auf dessen Verläßlichkeit. Dass dem charakteristischen case
law der in unserer Rechtsordnung vorhandene hohe Abstraktionsgrad abgeht, wird dabei als Vorteil angesehen.
Band 1 möchte mit den ersten vier Kapiteln zum englischen Rechtssystem den Grundstein für ein umfassendes Verständnis (feeling) dieser fremdartigen Rechtsordnung des
common law legen. Kapitel 5 und 6 bilden mit "Persons in Law" und "Law of Contract"
den Auftakt zur Einführung in das materielle englische Recht, die in Band 2 mit weiteren
fünf Bereichen des englischen civil law fortgesetzt wird. Bei allem steht im Vordergrund,
dem Leser die zugrundeliegenden Rechtskonzepte anschaulich zu vermitteln, da sie oftmals nicht mit den vertrauten deutschen Konzepten vergleichbar sind.
Seit der 4. Auflage ist einige Zeit vergangen, weshalb eine grundlegende Überarbeitung
und Aktualisierung geboten erschien. Ganz neu eingebracht wurde die europäische Dimension, die auch vor dem Recht des Unionsmitglieds United Kingdom nicht halt
macht, und insbesondere den Verbraucherschutz prägt. Aufzunehmen war im Kontext
europäisch beeinflusster Rechtsquellen auch der Human Rights Act 1998. Einschneiden-
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de Neuerungen im englischen Rechtssystem, die sich damals schon angedeutet hatten
(Constitutional Reform Act 2005), aber erst später Wirkung zeigten, wurden eingearbeitet. Dazu gehört die 2009 beendete Ära des House of Lords als Rechtsprechungsorgan
und des Lord Chancellors als Richter und head of judiciary. Bedeutsam sind darüber hinaus der Legal Services Act 2007, der den Markt für Rechtsdienstleistungen liberalisiert,
der Tribunals, Courts and Enforcement Act 2007, diverse Änderungen in der berufsständischen Gesetzgebung zur legal profession und der neue Companies Act 2006 im Gesellschaftsrecht, dessen Vertiefung im Kapitel "Persons in Law" sich als lohnenswert erwies.
Die sprachliche Fassung sowie die Vokabelübersetzungen erfuhren ebenfalls eine vollständige Überarbeitung. Wo angebracht, wurden cases zugunsten der Lesbarkeit verkürzt oder umformuliert.
Neu ist die Bearbeitung im Team. Kristina Balleis verantwortet als Juristin in erster Linie
die fachlichen Inhalte. Alexandra Angress als Sprachwissenschaftlerin hat die sprachliche
Fassung begleitet. Beraten und unterstützt wurden wir durch William Herbert, M.A.
(Hons) (Cantab.), Solicitor aus Birmingham, einem langjährigen Freund Rainer Wörlens
und Mitglied der Deutsch-Britischen Juristenvereinigung e.V. Ihm gebührt unser allererster und aufrichtigster Dank für seine Vorschläge zu den Kapiteln 1, 3, 4 und 5 und für
die Einbringung seiner Freizeit, die er geduldig und unermüdlich für unsere vielen „kleinen und großen“ Fragen geopfert hat.
Besonders danken wir auch Solicitor Alison Turnbull, LL.M., LL.B., Senior Lecturer in Law
an der Birmingham City University, School of Law, für die kritische Lektüre der Kapitel 1,
4 und 5.
Weiterer Dank gebührt Petra Keiser und Susan Rastetter-Gies für die Durchsicht des
Manuskripts.
Für all die erfahrene großzügige Hilfe sind wir sehr dankbar. Etwaige Fehler oder Ungenauigkeiten haben gleichwohl wir allein zu verantworten. Konstruktiv-kritische Anregungen und „Fehlermeldungen“ nehmen wir gern entgegen. Sie erreichen uns per Mail
unter kristina.balleis@h-ab.de und alexandra.angress@h-ab.de oder mit der Post unter
der Anschrift: Fakultät Wirtschaft und Recht, Hochschule Aschaffenburg, Würzburger
Str. 45, 63743 Aschaffenburg.
Aschaffenburg, im Juli 2012
Kristina Balleis & Alexandra Angress
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Contents
Vorwort
Preface
Vorwort zur ersten Auflage
Table of Cases .......................................................................................................................................... IX
Table of Statutes ..................................................................................................................................... XI
Table of Diagrams ................................................................................................................................ XIII
Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... XV
Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................... XVII
Part One: General Features of English Civil Law
Chapter One
Classification and Sources of English Law ..................................................................................1
I. What is English law ...........................................................................................................................1
II. Historical background .....................................................................................................................2
III. Classification of English law .........................................................................................................3
1. Private law and public law ........................................................................................................3
2. Criminal law and civil law ..........................................................................................................4
3. Common law and equity ...........................................................................................................4
4. Case law and statutory law .......................................................................................................5
5. Common law and civil law ........................................................................................................5
6. Other legal classifications .........................................................................................................6
IV. Sources of English law .....................................................................................................................7
1. Legislation ......................................................................................................................................9
a) Sovereignty of Parliament ...................................................................................................9
b) Legislative procedure ...........................................................................................................9
c) Delegated legislation ......................................................................................................... 11
d) Statutory interpretation .................................................................................................... 13
aa) The traditional rules ................................................................................................... 13
bb) The modern approach ............................................................................................... 13
cc) Other interpretation aids .......................................................................................... 14
2. Case law – judicial precedent ............................................................................................... 16
a) Meaning of precedent....................................................................................................... 16
b) Operation of the doctrine of precedent ...................................................................... 17
c) Hierarchy of the English courts ...................................................................................... 17
d) Deviating from precedents .............................................................................................. 19
e) Pros and cons of precedent ............................................................................................. 20
3. European Union law ................................................................................................................ 22
a) Sources of EU law ................................................................................................................ 22
b) The European Communities Act 1972 and Parliamentary sovereignty .......... 22
4. The Human Rights Act 1998 ................................................................................................. 24
a) The impact of the HRA 1998 ............................................................................................ 24
b) Constitutional Reform Act 2005 ..................................................................................... 25
5. Other sources of English law ................................................................................................ 25
V. Further reading & references ..................................................................................................... 27
I
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Chapter Two
Administration of Justice ................................................................................................................. 28
I. Common law and equity ............................................................................................................. 28
1. Historical background ............................................................................................................. 28
2. Common law .............................................................................................................................. 29
a) Common law courts ........................................................................................................... 29
b) The system of writs ............................................................................................................. 30
3. Equity ............................................................................................................................................ 32
a) Term and historical setting .............................................................................................. 32
b) Maxims of equity ................................................................................................................. 34
aa) "Equity shall prevail." .................................................................................................. 34
bb) "Equity will not suffer a wrong to be without remedy." ................................ 34
cc) "Equity follows the law." ........................................................................................... 35
dd) "He who comes to equity must come with clean hands." ............................ 35
ee) "Equity acts in personam." ....................................................................................... 35
ff) "Equity will not assist a volunteer." ....................................................................... 35
II. The modern judiciary in England ............................................................................................. 36
1. Basic structure of the English court system ..................................................................... 36
2. The inferior courts ..................................................................................................................... 39
a) County courts ........................................................................................................................ 40
b) Magistrates’ courts.............................................................................................................. 41
3. The superior courts .................................................................................................................. 41
a) Crown Court .......................................................................................................................... 42
b) High Court of Justice .......................................................................................................... 42
aa) The Queen’s Bench Division .................................................................................... 43
bb) The Chancery Division ............................................................................................... 44
cc) The Family Division ..................................................................................................... 44
c) Court of Appeal .................................................................................................................... 45
aa) The Civil Division ......................................................................................................... 45
bb) The Criminal Division ................................................................................................. 46
d) Supreme Court of the UK .................................................................................................. 46
e) The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council ............................................................. 47
4. International courts .................................................................................................................. 49
a) European Court of Justice ................................................................................................ 49
b) European Court of Human Rights ................................................................................. 49
5. Recent trends and reforms .................................................................................................... 49
III. Further reading & references .................................................................................................... 50
Chapter Three
Legal Profession and Judiciary ...................................................................................................... 51
I. Introduction and history .............................................................................................................. 51
II. Solicitors ............................................................................................................................................ 53
1. Fields of activity ......................................................................................................................... 53
2. Organisation ............................................................................................................................... 55
3. Training and qualification ...................................................................................................... 56
II
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4. Fees ................................................................................................................................................ 57
III. Barristers ............................................................................................................................................ 58
1. Fields of activity ......................................................................................................................... 59
2. Organisation ............................................................................................................................... 60
3. Training and qualification ...................................................................................................... 61
4. Fees ................................................................................................................................................ 62
5. The Attorney-General and the Solicitor-General ........................................................... 62
6. The Crown Prosecution Service ........................................................................................... 63
IV. Summary of recent developments .......................................................................................... 63
1. The future of a divided profession of advocates ........................................................... 64
2. Legal Services Act 2007 .......................................................................................................... 64
V. Judiciary ............................................................................................................................................. 65
1. Training ........................................................................................................................................ 66
2. Appointment .............................................................................................................................. 66
3. Tasks and responsibilities ...................................................................................................... 68
4. Immunity...................................................................................................................................... 69
5. Retirement and removal from office ................................................................................. 70
6. Remuneration ............................................................................................................................ 70
7. Magistrates .................................................................................................................................. 70
VI. Further reading & references ..................................................................................................... 72
Chapter Four
How to Approach the Law ................................................................................................................ 73
I. Cases ................................................................................................................................................... 73
1. Finding cases .............................................................................................................................. 73
2. Law reporting in history and today .................................................................................... 74
a) Pre-1865 reports .................................................................................................................. 74
b) Modern reports (since 1865) ........................................................................................... 76
aa) The Law Reports .......................................................................................................... 76
bb) Other reports ................................................................................................................ 78
cc) Common and different features ............................................................................ 79
c) Cases on the Net .................................................................................................................. 79
3. Using modern law reports ..................................................................................................... 80
a) Citation and reference ....................................................................................................... 80
b) How to trace a particular case ........................................................................................ 82
c) How to read a case in a law report ................................................................................ 84
II. Statutes .............................................................................................................................................. 86
1. Finding statutes ......................................................................................................................... 87
2. Reading statutes ....................................................................................................................... 88
3. Citation of statutes and provisions ..................................................................................... 90
III. Further reading & references ..................................................................................................... 91
III
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Part Two: Main Subjects of English Civil Law
Chapter Five
Persons in Law ....................................................................................................................................... 92
I. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 92
II. Natural persons ............................................................................................................................... 92
1. Minors ........................................................................................................................................... 93
a) Minority and majority ........................................................................................................ 93
b) Rights and duties of minors under civil law ............................................................... 93
aa) Contract .......................................................................................................................... 93
bb) Tort ................................................................................................................................... 94
cc) Property .......................................................................................................................... 95
dd) Marriage .......................................................................................................................... 95
ee) Wills .................................................................................................................................. 95
ff) Right of action .............................................................................................................. 95
c) Miscellaneous rights and duties outside civil law ................................................... 96
2. Unborn children ........................................................................................................................ 98
3. Persons of unsound mind ...................................................................................................... 98
III. Juristic persons ................................................................................................................................ 99
1. The concept of juristic personality ...................................................................................100
2. Corporations – types and creation ................................................................................... 100
a) One member or more – corporation sole or aggregate? ....................................100
b) Means of creation ..............................................................................................................101
aa) Royal Charter ..............................................................................................................101
bb) Specific statute ..........................................................................................................102
cc) Registration under the Companies Acts (Incorporation) ...........................102
3. Public limited company (plc) ..............................................................................................103
4. Private limited company (Ltd) ............................................................................................104
5. Effects of incorporation ........................................................................................................105
a) Constitution of the company ........................................................................................105
b) Corporate personality and limited liability ..............................................................106
IV. Special Cases .................................................................................................................................. 108
1. Unincorporated associations ..............................................................................................108
2. Partnership law ........................................................................................................................109
3. The limited liability partnership (LLP) .............................................................................110
V. Companies, LLPs and partnerships – compared and contrasted ...............................111
1. Incorporation ............................................................................................................................111
2. Legal personality .....................................................................................................................111
3. Management ............................................................................................................................ 111
4. Property ......................................................................................................................................112
5. Liability .......................................................................................................................................112
6. Profit ............................................................................................................................................112
7. Members ....................................................................................................................................112
8. Disclosure of information ....................................................................................................112
9. Winding up ................................................................................................................................112
IV
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VI. English trading structures in brief .........................................................................................114
VII. Further reading & references ..................................................................................................115
Chapter Six
Law of Contract ...................................................................................................................................116
I. Introduction and brief history .................................................................................................116
II. Formalities ......................................................................................................................................118
1. Contracts which must be made by deed .......................................................................118
2. Contracts which must be in writing .................................................................................119
3. Contracts which must be evidenced in writing ...........................................................120
4. The Consumer Protection (Distance selling) Regulations 2000 .............................120
III. Formation of a contract and consideration ........................................................................121
1. Offer ............................................................................................................................................. 122
a) Offer of a reward ................................................................................................................122
b) Invitation to treat ...............................................................................................................123
c) Communication of an offer ...........................................................................................125
d) Termination of an offer ...................................................................................................125
2. Acceptance ...............................................................................................................................128
a) Unconditional acceptance .............................................................................................128
b) Use of standard form contracts ....................................................................................129
c) Communication of acceptance ....................................................................................129
d) Stipulated methods of acceptance .............................................................................131
e) Agreement by use of post ..............................................................................................131
f) Acceptance in modern forms of communication .................................................132
3. Contractual intention ............................................................................................................133
a) Domestic and social agreements ................................................................................134
b) Commercial agreements ................................................................................................136
c) Advertisements...................................................................................................................138
d) Collective agreements .....................................................................................................138
e) Importance of contractual intention ..........................................................................138
4. Consideration ...........................................................................................................................139
a) What is consideration? ....................................................................................................140
b) Consideration must not be past ..................................................................................140
c) Consideration must move from the promisee .......................................................141
d) Consideration need not be adequate but must be sufficient ...........................142
e) Performance of existing duties ....................................................................................144
f) Problems with consideration – part payment of debt ........................................145
g) Equity: the doctrine of promissory estoppel ...........................................................148
IV. Legal capacity to contract......................................................................................................... 152
1. Minors .........................................................................................................................................152
a) Valid contracts ....................................................................................................................153
aa) Contracts for necessaries ......................................................................................153
bb) Contracts of service for the minor’s benefit ....................................................154
b) Contracts voidable by minors .......................................................................................156
c) Void contracts .....................................................................................................................157
V
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2. Persons of unsound mind and drunkards ......................................................................158
3. Capacity of corporations ......................................................................................................159
a) Limited liability partnerships ........................................................................................160
b) Chartered corporations ...................................................................................................160
c) Statutory corporations ....................................................................................................160
d) Registered (limited) companies ...................................................................................160
e) The doctrine of ultra vires ..............................................................................................160
V. The contents of contract ............................................................................................................162
1. Starting up .................................................................................................................................162
2. Contractual terms ...................................................................................................................163
a) Definition ..............................................................................................................................163
b) Express terms ......................................................................................................................163
c) Implied terms ......................................................................................................................167
aa) Terms implied by statute ........................................................................................168
bb) Terms implied by the court ...................................................................................169
cc) Terms implied by custom .......................................................................................170
d) Classification of terms ......................................................................................................171
aa) Conditions.................................................................................................................... 171
bb) Warranties ....................................................................................................................171
cc) Innominate terms ......................................................................................................172
3. Letters of intent – a special case ........................................................................................174
4. Exemption clauses ..................................................................................................................175
a) Control at common law ..................................................................................................176
aa) Incorporation into the contract ...........................................................................176
bb) Construction of exemption clauses.................................................................... 180
b) Control under the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 ...............................................182
aa) Scope .............................................................................................................................183
bb) Invalid clauses under the UCTA ...........................................................................183
cc) Exclusions and reasonableness ............................................................................184
c) Control under the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contract Regulations 1999 .... 187
VI. Vitiating factors ............................................................................................................................188
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 188
2. Mistake ........................................................................................................................................189
a) Mutual mistake as to the terms of the subject-matter ........................................189
b) Common mistake as to the existence, the title or the quality
of the subject-matter .......................................................................................................190
c) Unilateral mistake as to the nature of a signed document or the
identity of one party or to the terms of the contract ...........................................191
3. Misrepresentation ...................................................................................................................192
a) Fraudulent misrepresentation ......................................................................................193
b) Negligent misrepresentation ........................................................................................194
c) Innocent misrepresentation ..........................................................................................195
d) Remedies ..............................................................................................................................195
e) Silence as misrepresentation ........................................................................................196
4. Duress and undue influence ...............................................................................................197
a) Duress ....................................................................................................................................197
VI
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aa) Actual or threatened violence to the person ..................................................197
bb) Threats to property ...................................................................................................198
cc) Economic duress .......................................................................................................198
b) Undue influence ................................................................................................................199
5. Illegality ......................................................................................................................................201
a) Contracts illegal by statute ............................................................................................201
aa) Contracts forbidden by statute ............................................................................201
bb) Contracts performed in an unlawful manner .................................................202
b) Contracts illegal at common law .................................................................................203
aa) Contracts to commit a crime or tort ...................................................................203
bb) Contracts contrary to public policy .....................................................................204
cc) Effects of illegality at common law .....................................................................205
c) The failed reform of the illegality defence ...............................................................206
d) Contracts in restraint of trade .......................................................................................206
aa) Contracts of employment ......................................................................................206
bb) Contracts for the sale of a business ....................................................................207
cc) Exclusive trading or dealing agreements: solus agreements ...................208
VII. Discharge of a contract ..............................................................................................................209
1. Performance .............................................................................................................................209
a) The strict rule ......................................................................................................................209
b) Exceptions to the strict rule........................................................................................... 210
2. Agreement ................................................................................................................................ 212
3. Breach .........................................................................................................................................213
4. Frustration .................................................................................................................................213
VIII. Remedies........................................................................................................................................ 216
1. Damages ....................................................................................................................................217
2. Specific performance .............................................................................................................220
3. Injunction ...................................................................................................................................220
4. Rescission ...................................................................................................................................221
IX. Third party rights and the privity rule ...................................................................................222
1. General rule of privity ............................................................................................................222
2. Statutory exceptions – Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 ...................224
3. Exceptions at common law .................................................................................................225
X. Structure of a contract of sale ..................................................................................................226
XI. Further reading & references ...................................................................................................227
Index..........................................................................................................................................................229
VII
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Table of Cases
Adams v Lindsell (1818) ................................................132
Alexander v Rayson (1936 ............................................203
Allcard v Skinner (1887 ..................................................199
Anderson Ltd v Daniel (1924)......................................202
Antons Trawling Co Ltd v Smith (2003) ...................145
Armhouse Lee Ltd v Chappell (1996) .......................205
Ashbury Railway
Carriage Co Ltd v Riche (1875)...............................161
Atlas Express Ltd v Kafco (1989) .................................198
Balfour v Balfour (1919)............................................. 134 f.
Bank of Credit and Commerce International
SA v Aboody (1990)....................................................200
Barry v Heathcote Ball Co (Commercial
Auctions) Ltd (2000)...................................................124
Barton v Armstrong (1975)...........................................198
Beswick v Beswick (1967)..............................................224
Bettini v Gye (1876) .........................................................172
Bolton v Mahadeva (1972)............................................211
Brikom Investment Ltd v Carr (1979) ........................151
Brinkibon Ltd v Stahag Stahl (1983)..........................133
Bunge Corporation v Tradax Export SA (1981) .....173
Butler Machine Tool Co Ltd v ExCell-O
Corporation (England) Ltd (1979).........................129
Carlill v Carbolic Smoke
Ball Co (1893.....................................122, 124, 130, 138
Cehave NV v Bremer Handelsgesellschaft mbH
(The Hansa Nord) (1976) ..........................................173
Central London Property Trust Ltd v
High Trees House Ltd (1947) ..................................150
Chapleton v Barry Urban
District Council (1940)...............................................178
Chappell & Co Ltd v Nestlé Ltd (1960)............ 143, 145
Collier v P&M J Wright (Holdings) Ltd (2008).........151
Combe v Combe (1951).................................................150
Cooper v Phibbs (1867) .................................................190
Cope v Rowlands (1836)................................................202
Couchman v Hill (1947) .................................................164
Couturier v Hastie (1856) ..............................................190
Coward v Motor Insurers’ Bureau (1963).................136
Currie v Misa (1875).........................................................140
Curtis v Chemical Cleaning and
Dyeing & Co Ltd (1951) ............................................177
Cutter v Powell (1795)....................................................209
Earl of Oxford’s Case (1615) ........................................... 34
Eliason v Henshaw (1819) .............................................131
Esso Petroleum Co Ltd v Harper’s Garage
(Stourport) Ltd (1968) ...............................................208
Evans v Cross (1938).......................................................... 15
Experience Hendrix LLC v PPX
Enterprises Inc (2003)................................................ 219
Felthouse v Bindley (1862)...........................................130
Fisher v Bell (1960)...........................................................124
Foakes v Beer (1884) .......................................................147
Foster v Mackinnon (1869) ...........................................191
George Mitchell (Chesterhall) Ltd v
Finney Lock Seeds Ltd (1983).................................185
Great Peace (Shipping) Ltd v Tsavliris (Salvage)
International Ltd (2002)............................................190
Hadley v Baxendale (1854)...........................................217
Harlingdon & Leinster Enterprises Ltd v
Christopher Hull Fine Art Ltd (1990)....................168
Harris v Nickerson (1873) ................................... 117 , 124
Hart v O’Connor (1985) ..................................................159
Hedley Byrne & Co Ltd v
Heller & Partners Ltd (1964) .................................... 194
Herne Bay Steamboat Co v Hutton (1903)..............215
Heydon's Case (1584) ....................................................... 13
HIH Casualty and General Insurance v Chase
Manhattan Bank (2003) ............................................181
Hochster v De La Tour (1853) ......................................213
Hoenig v Isaacs (1952) ...................................................211
Hong Kong Fir Shipping Co Ltd v Kawasaki
Kisen Kaisha Ltd (1962)..........................................172 f.
Household Fire Insurance Co v
Grant (1879)..................................................................132
Hughes v Metropolitan Railway Co (1877) .............149
Hutton v Warren (1836) .................................................170
Hyde v Wrench (1840).................................................128 f.
Imperial Loan Co v Stone (1892) ................................159
Jackson v Horizon Holidays Ltd (1975) ....................224
Jones v National Coal Board (1967)............................. 68
Jones v Padavatton (1969) ...........................................135
Krell v Henry (1903).........................................................214
Dann v Curzon (1911).....................................................203
Darlington Borough Council v Wiltshier
Northern Limited (1995)...........................................224
Davis v Johnson (1979) .................................................... 19
Davis Contractors Ltd v Fareham
U.D.C. (1956) .................................................................214
De Francesco v Barnum (1890) ...................................155
Derry v Peek (1889) .........................................................193
Dickinson v Dodds (1876).............................................127
Dimmock v Hallett (1866) .............................................196
Doyle v White City Stadium (1935)............................155
Dunlop v New Garage Co (1915)................................219
Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Co Ltd v
Selfridge & Co Ltd (1915) ............................ 140, 223 f.
Laemthong International Lines Co Ltd
v Artis (2005)................................................................. 225
Lampleigh v Braithwaite (1615).................................. 141
Lens v Devonshire Club (1914) ...................................136
L’Estrange v Graucob (1934)........................................176
Lloyds Bank v Bundy (1979) ......................................... 200
London Street Tramways Co Ltd v London
County Council (1898) ................................................ 18
Mason v Provident Clothing and
Supply Co Ltd (1913) .................................................207
Merritt v Merritt (1970) ..................................................135
Midland Bank v Shephard (1988)...............................200
VIII
06 Table of Cases.fm Seite IX Freitag, 27. Juli 2012 2:37 14
Table of Cases
Moore & Co’s and Landauer & Co’s Arbitration,
Re (1921).........................................................................210
Moorcock, The (1889) .....................................................169
Nash v Inman (1908) ............................................. 153, 158
Nisshin Shippin Co Ltd v Cleaves (2003)..................225
Nordenfeldt v Maxim Nordenfeldt Guns &
Ammunition Co (1894)..............................................207
Occidental Worldwide Investment Corporation v
Skibs A/S Avanti “The Siboen and
the Sibotre” (1976)....................................................198
Olley v Marlborough Court Hotel (1949) ....... 177, 180
Osborne v Rowlett (1880) ............................................... 17
Oscar Chess Ltd v Williams (1957)..............................165
Overton v Bannister (1844)............................................. 35
Pao On v Lau Yiu Long (1980)......................................141
Parker v South Eastern Railway Co (1877)...............178
Patrotrade Inc v Texaco Ltd (2000) ............................180
Parkinson v The College of Ambulance Ltd
and Harrison (1925)....................................................204
Pearce v Brain (1929).......................................................158
Pearce v Brooks (1866) ...................................................205
Petroleum Ltd v Commissioners of Custom
and Excise (1976) ........................................................137
Phillips v Brooks Ltd (1919)...........................................192
Photo Production Ltd v Securicor
Transport Ltd (1980) ..................................................181
Pinnel’s Case (1602).......................................... 146 ff., 212
Planche v Colburn (1831) ..............................................211
Poussard v Speirs and Pond (1876) ...........................171
Proform Sports Management Ltd v Proactive
Sports Management Ltd and
Another (2006) ...........................................................156
R. v McNaghten (1843).............................................. 80, 99
R v Bow Street Metropolitan Magistrate and
Others, ex parte Pinochet Ugarte (1999) .............. 69
IX
Raffles v Wichelhaus (1864)..........................................189
Reardon Smith Line Ltd
v Hansen-Tangen (1976) ..........................................173
Roscorla v Thomas (1842) .............................................141
Rose & Frank Co v Compton Bros. Ltd (1925).........136
Routledge v McKay (1954) ............................................165
RTS Flexible Systems v Molkerei
Alois Müller (2010)......................................................175
R.W.Green Ltd v Cade Bros. Farm (1978) .................186
Salomon v Salomon & Co Ltd (1897) .................... 107 f.
Saunders v Anglia Building Society (1970) .............191
Scruttons Ltd v Midland Silicones Ltd (1962).........223
Simpkins v Pays (1955)...................................................136
Spencer’s Case (1378)..........................................................2
Spice Girls v Aprilia World Service BV (2000)..........193
Steinberg v Scala (Leeds) Ltd (1923) .........................156
Stevenson, Jacques & Co v Mc Lean (1880) ............128
Stone & Rolls Ltd v Moore Stephens (2009)............206
Taylor v Caldwell (1843) ................................................214
The Prior’s Case......................................................................2
Thomas v Thomas (1842) ..............................................143
Thornton v Shoe Lane Parking Ltd (1971)...............179
Tweddle v Atkinson (1861) ..............................142, 222 f.
Van Gend en Loos (26/62) [1963] E.C.R.3 .................. 22
Victoria Laundry v Newman
Industrie Ltd (1949) ....................................................218
Warlow v Harrison (1859)..............................................124
Warner Brothers Pictures Inc v Nelson (1937)........220
Williams v Roffey Bros & Nicholls
(Contractors) Ltd (1991)........................................ 144 f.
With v O’Flanagan (1936)..............................................196
Woodar Investment Development Ltd
v Wimpey Construction (UK) Ltd (1980) .............224
Young v Bristol Aeroplane Co Ltd (1944) ...............18 f.
07 Table of Statutes.fm Seite X Freitag, 27. Juli 2012 2:41 14
Table of Statutes
Access to Justice Act 1999....................................... 40, 64
Access to Justice (Woolf Report) 1996 ....................... 49
Act of Settlement 1700 .......................................................9
Administration of Justice Act 1985.............................. 54
Animal Welfare Act 2006................................................. 92
Bills of Exchange Act 1882. ..........................................224
British Nationality and Status of Aliens
Act 1943 ........................................................................... 92
British Telecommunications Act 1981......................102
Children Act 1989 ................................................ 40, 41, 49
Civil Procedure Rules 1998 ............................... 40, 49, 73
Code of Conduct of the Bar of England
and Wales ........................................................................ 60
Code Napoléon 1804...........................................................8
Companies Act 1985...................................... 10, 102, 119
Companies Act 2006...................10, 101, 102, 103, 104,
..................................................... 105, 106, 114, 160, 161
Competition Act 1998 .......................................... 206, 224
Constitutional Reform
Act 2005 ....................25, 41, 44, 46, 47, 50, 66, 67, 68
Consumer Credit Act 1974 ...........................................119
Consumer Credit Act 2006 ...........................................119
Consumer Protection (Distance Selling)
Regulations 2000 .............................................. 120, 133
Contracts (Rights of Third Parties)
Act 1999 ..................................................... 142, 224, 225
Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms (ECHR) of 1950 ................................... 49, 68
County Courts Act 1846................................................... 40
County Courts Act 1984................................................... 40
Courts Act 1971 .................................................................. 42
Courts Act 2003. ................................................................. 50
Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 ....... 49, 53, 55, 65
Criminal Appeal Act 1966 ............................................... 46
Criminal Appeal Act 1995 ............................................... 46
Crown Proceedings Act 1947 ...........................................3
Electoral Administration Act 2006............................... 96
Electronic Commerce (EC Directive)
Regulations 2002 ........................................................133
European Communities Act 1972
(ECA) .................................................... 22, 23, 24, 25, 161
European Community Directive on Unfair Terms
in Consumer Contracts 93/13/EC..........................187
European Convention on
Human Rights 1950 (ECHR)....................... 6, 8, 47, 50
European Directive 97/7/EC.........................................120
Family Law Reform Act 1969 ......................................... 93
Further and Higher Education Act 1992..................102
Gambling Act 2005 .........................................................202
Gaming Act 1845 .............................................................202
Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) ........................ 24, 25, 66
Industry Nationalisation Act 1946. ............................102
Infant Life (Preservation) Act 1929 .............................. 98
Infants Relief Act 1874....................................................157
Interpretation Act 1978 ................................................... 14
Judicial Pensions and Retirement Act 1999............. 70
Judicature Acts 1873–1875 ................... 5, 29, 30, 33, 45
Law Commissions Act 1965 ........................................... 10
Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions)
Act 1989 .........................................................................119
Law of Property Act 1925..............................95, 119, 224
Law Reform (Frustrated Contracts) Act 1943.........215
Legal Services Act 2007 ........................55, 59, 60, 63, 64
Limited Partnership Act 1907.............................109, 110
Limited Liability Partnerships
Act 2000 ...................................................... 110, 114, 160
Limited Liability Partnerships
Regulations 2001 ........................................................110
Lord Woolf’s Practice Direction 2001 .....76, 77, 81, 82
Offensive Weapons Act 1959 ......................................124
Marriage of Lunatics Act 1811 ...................................... 98
Marriage with Foreigners Act 1906 ............................. 92
Married Women's Property Act 1882........................ 224
Matrimonial Causes Act 1973........................................ 90
Maximum Number of Judges Order 2003 ......... 42, 45
Mental Capacity Act 2005........................................ 37, 98
Mental Health Act 1983 .................................................159
Merchant Shipping Act 1970.......................................210
Minors' Contracts Act 1987........... ........93, 94, 153, 158
Misrepresentation Act 1967...................... 182, 194, 195
Nottingham Parc Estate Act 1990................................ 10
Partnership Act 1890.............................................109, 114
Partnership Act 1907 ......................................................110
Powers of Attorney Act 1971.......................................119
Practice Statement (Judicial Precedent) 1966......... 18
Practice Statement 1966 .......................................... 18, 19
Provisions of Oxford 1258............................................... 31
Representation of the People Act
(Reform Act) 1832......................................................... 29
Road Traffic Act 1930........................................................ 15
Road Traffic Act 1988......................................................224
Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994 .................168, 210
Sale and Supply of Goods to Consumers
Regulations 2002 ........................................................184
Sale of Goods Act 1979....................... 93, 124, 153, 154,
.................................. 158, 168, 169, 184, 190, 210, 220
Senior Courts Act 1981 .................................................... 70
Solicitors Act 1974 ............................................................. 54
Solicitors’ Remuneration Order 2009 ......................... 57
SRA Code of Conduct 2011 ............................................ 55
SRA Higher Rights of
Audience Regulation 2011........................................ 54
Statute of Frauds 1677 ..................................................120
Sunbeds (Regulation) Act 2010 .................................... 10
Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982 .........169, 184
Supply of Goods (Implied Terms) Act 1973............ 182
Supreme Court Act 1981................................................. 42
Trade Union and Labour Relations
(Consolidation) Act 1992 ......................................... 138
Transport Act 1962.......................................................... 102
Treaty of the European Union (TEU) ........................... 49
Treaty of the Functioning of the European
Union (TFEU).......................................................... 22, 206
Tribunal, Courts and Enforcement
Act 2007 .................................................................... 37, 66
Unfair Contract Terms
Act 1977 (UCTA) ..............................175, 182, 183, 185
Unfair Terms in Consumer Contract
Regulations 1999 ...............................................175, 187
Wills Act 1937................................................................ 90
X
08 Table of diagrams.fm Seite XI Freitag, 27. Juli 2012 2:43 14
Table of Diagrams
1. Classification of English Law ..........................................................................................................7
2. Legislation.......................................................................................................................................... 12
3. Statutory Interpretation................................................................................................................ 15
4. Judicial Precedent........................................................................................................................... 21
5. Sources of English Law.................................................................................................................. 27
6. Common Law.................................................................................................................................... 32
7. Equity................................................................................................................................................... 36
8. Classification of English Courts .................................................................................................. 39
9. The English Courts .......................................................................................................................... 48
10. History of the Legal Profession................................................................................................... 53
11. Solicitors ............................................................................................................................................. 58
12. Barristers............................................................................................................................................. 63
13. Judges ................................................................................................................................................. 71
14. Handling Cases................................................................................................................................. 86
15. Handling Statutes............................................................................................................................ 91
16. Minors.................................................................................................................................................. 97
17. Corporations ...................................................................................................................................105
18. Effects of Incorporation...............................................................................................................108
19. Companies, LLPs and Partnerships.........................................................................................113
20. Persons in Law................................................................................................................................115
21. History of Contract Law...............................................................................................................118
22. Formalities .......................................................................................................................................121
23. Offer ...................................................................................................................................................127
24. Acceptance ......................................................................................................................................133
25. Contractual Intention ..................................................................................................................139
26. Consideration .................................................................................................................................148
27. Doctrine of Promissory Estoppel .............................................................................................152
28. Legal Capacity to Contract.........................................................................................................162
29. Contents of Contract....................................................................................................................174
30. Exemption Clauses........................................................................................................................188
31. Mistake ..............................................................................................................................................192
32. Misrepresentation.........................................................................................................................197
33. Duress and Undue Influence.....................................................................................................201
34. Illegality.............................................................................................................................................209
35. Discharge of a Contract...............................................................................................................217
36. Remedies..........................................................................................................................................221
37. Third Party Rights ..........................................................................................................................226
XI
11 Intro England.fm Seite 1 Freitag, 27. Juli 2012 12:06 12
Classification and Sources of English Law
Part One: General Features of English Civil Law
Chapter One
Merkmal/Charakteristikum
Chapter One
Classification and Sources of English Law
Einteilung – Quellen
I. What is English law
First of all, the term English law often stands for case law, as a
method of finding the law not in written codes of law, but in the
jurisdiction of the courts. In this general and broader sense English
law can be found all over the world, particularly in those countries
which have a historical connection with England, such as the
United States of America, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. It is
the purpose of this Introduction to English Civil Law, to give an
understanding of this global and general aspect of English law and
the worldwide spread of the English legal system as the mother
of all common law systems.
Nevertheless, we should be precise about what we mean by
English. One must distinguish carefully between the United
Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), Great Britain
and England. Geographically, Great Britain comprises the whole
island including England, Wales and Scotland, whereas England by
itself means without Wales and Scotland. From a legal point of view
within the United Kingdom, English law applies only in England and
Wales, while Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own legal
systems.
Begriff – Fallrecht
Gesetzbuch
Rechtsprechung – Gericht – weit
Absicht/Zweck/Ziel
Ausbreitung – Rechtssystem
unterscheiden
hier: dazu gehören
This book has the focus on English law in the latter sense – i.e. the
law as it applies to England and Wales.1
sich schwerpunktmäßig beschäftigen
mit
Part One of this Introduction to English Civil Law deals with
general features of English civil law, in order to provide a sound
foundation for those familiar with the German system. Part Two
(which is continued in volume 2) then addresses some of the main
subjects of English civil law in more detail, namely the law of
contract, tort, property, succession, trusts and families.
sich auseinandersetzen mit
eine gute Grundlage liefern
sich beschäftigen mit/angehen
Vertrag – unerlaubte Handlung –
Eigentum – Erbfolge – Treuhandverhältnis
1 For reasons of simplification, we will mostly refer to England and English law throughout
this book.
1
11 Intro England.fm Seite 2 Freitag, 27. Juli 2012 12:06 12
Chapter One
Classification and Sources of English Law
II. Historical background
bemerkenswert/beachtlich
kontinentaleuropäisch
wesentlicher Unterschied
gesetzlich (festgeschrieben)
kodifiziert – hauptsächlich/in erster
Linie
bezeichnen als – Richterrecht
Abschnitt
The first point to note is that the English legal system is strikingly
different from Continental legal systems (which tend to follow
the Romano-Germanic model). The essential difference is that,
whereas most Continental legal systems are based on statutory or
codified2 law, the English legal system is primarily based on case
law (also referred to as "judge-made law"). Today, the position of
legislation must not be neglected (see subchapter IV section 1).
verkörpern
At this stage, we should note that English law and case law embody
almost the same concept. Historically, the greater part of English
law consisted of numerous principles set out in cases decided in
courts. The cases setting out those principles are known as judicial
precedents (see subchapter IV section 2). Therefore, the starting
point for an English court on a point of law, is to see if the principle
has already been decided in a previous (analogous) case which that
court must follow. Contrast this with the German approach, which
is to start with the codified law.
zahlreich – Grundsatz/Regel – anordnen/im Detail darlegen – gerichtlicher Präzedenzfall
früher/vorherig – vergleichbar
Herangehensweise
ausfindig machen/zurückführen auf
zitieren – hier: Quelle
Vereinbarung/Vertrag abschließen
durchsetzen/Geltung verschaffen –
Präzedenzfall
To understand English law the historical background is of great
importance. There are few other legal systems which can trace
principles first laid down in cases decided many centuries ago, and
which are still quoted today as the authority. One example is the
law of property, concerning the extent to which an agreement,
entered into for the benefit of a particular land or building, can be
enforced by a later owner. The leading cases on this point are The
Prior’s Case (the date of which is unknown), followed in Spencer’s
Case, decided in 1378.
The difference between the English and the Continental approach
is due to the historical roots of the two legal systems.
Gelehrter/Wissenschaftler
Kirchenrecht/kanonisches Recht – unzureichend/ungeeignet – Gewohnheitsrecht
ziemlich
The legal system of the Continental law family was developed by
scholars in European universities from the 12th and 13th centuries
throughout to the Renaissance. There was a need for a legal
system, independent of canon law, to replace inadequate
customary law which was otherwise the only legal system but
operating differently in different places. The law at that time was
seen as a fairly abstract concept of principles of justice.
2 D.h. für einen bestimmten Lebensbereich geltendes Recht systematisch in einem
zusammenhängenden Gesetzeswerk zusammenfassen.
2
11 Intro England.fm Seite 3 Freitag, 27. Juli 2012 12:06 12
Classification and Sources of English Law
Whereas on the Continent, Roman law was studied and refined over
time into codes of law for the countries concerned, the contrary
was the case in common law countries. The English courts
developed their own principles from an early date, which became
very rigid and entrenched. There was little scope for Roman law to
have much influence. The royal judges were concerned with
finding a solution to the instant and individual case before them.
Thus, the principles they developed were derived from practical
cases in real life, rather than being based on abstract principles.
Judicial reasoning in the English legal system is therefore said to be
"bottom up" while the Continental legal system is "top down".
To take an example from criminal law, there has never been a
statutory definition of murder, but judges have no difficulty in
explaining to a jury in a trial, what the prosecution must establish
in order to prove a charge of murder.
Chapter One
europäisches Festland – weiterentwickeln
richterrechtliches englisches
Gewohnheitsrecht/Landrecht – von
einem frühen Zeitpunkt an – starr –
eingefahren/fest verwurzelt – wenig
Spielraum
herleiten
richterliche Arumentation/Begründung (e. Urteils)
von unten nach oben – von oben nach
unten
Mord
Geschworene – Prozess – hier:
Staatsanwalt
Vorwurf
III. Classification of English law
As in all legal systems, the law can be categorised in different ways.
1. Private law and public law
Privatrecht – öffentliches Recht
Continental legal systems have a natural distinction between
private law and public law. Historically, the English legal system has
not recognised this distinction. The development of public law was
stifled for a long time by the common law rule that the Crown
could do no wrong, and therefore could not be sued in its own
courts.3 It is only since the 1960s that public law has developed to
the stage of being a subject in its own right within English law, for
example being taught at universities as constitutional and
administrative law. Today there is a separate section of the High
Court, called Administrative Court, which deals with appropriate
cases of public law, but that is still part of the normal court system.
There is no separate set of courts administering public law,
comparable for example to the German „Verwaltungsgerichtsbarkeit“.
selbstredend
Private law is that part of the law which applies to persons in law
and governs primarily their legal position and their legal
relationships between each other. In German law terminology,
private law is the law which deals with the rights and duties of
3 The Crown Proceedings Act 1947 allowed for the first time civil actions against the Crown,
brought in the same way as against any other party.
unterdrücken/bremsen
verklagen/gerichtlich vorgehen
gegen
selbstständig
wörtl.: Hohes Gericht (vgl. dt.
Landgericht) – entsprechend
gesondert/unabhängig – Reihe/
Zusammenstellung – hier: (Recht)
sprechen
Rechtssubjekt
regeln/steuern – Rechtsstellung –
Rechtsbeziehung
Zivilklage
3
11 Intro England.fm Seite 4 Freitag, 27. Juli 2012 12:06 12
Chapter One
Classification and Sources of English Law
ebenbürtig/gleichrangig – Gebiet
VertragsR – SchuldR
DeliktsR – SachenR – FamilienR –
ErbR – Recht der Treuhandverhältnisse – HandelsR
ArbeitsR
coequal individuals. Private law includes most fields of English
civil law, including: contract (the law of obligations in Continental
legal systems), tort, property, family, succession and the law of
trusts. Private law also covers areas such as commercial and
employment law.
Aufbau – Befugnis – Aufgabe
Regierung – Behörde – Ortsbehörde/
Gemeindevertretung
– untergeordnet – VerfassungsR – VerwaltungsR
SozialR – SteuerR – Strafrecht
Public law deals with the structure, powers and functions of
government and public authorities, such as local councils and their
legal relationships with their subordinate citizens – and with each
other. Public law thus includes constitutional, administrative,
social security and tax law as well as criminal law.
2. Criminal law and civil law
gängig
Another well-established classification is to divide the law into
criminal law and civil law.
im Zusammenhang mit – Verbrechen
– Vergehen – befasst sein mit –
vorsehen – hier: nach sich ziehen
Criminal law means the law relating to crime and criminal offence.
It is concerned with legal rules that provide for that certain forms of
human conduct carry punishment by the state. As this book is an
introduction to English civil law, criminal law will not be dealt with
in any further detail.
weiter(gehend)
Lehr-/Fachbuch
Gegensatz – rechtswissenschaftliches
Diplom – Grundstücksrecht –
Billigkeitsrecht – Betonung
pl.: Verfahren/Prozess – Anforderung –
Beweis
Civil law, from a German point of view, is often used as a synonym
for private law, but sometimes it is used to refer only to a part of
private law, such as the German „Bürgerliches Recht“ as set out in
the German BGB. In English textbooks civil law is often used as the
opposite of criminal law. Many subjects studied in a law degree,
such as tort, contract, land law, equity, most of public law and most
of EU law belong to civil law in this broad sense. The emphasis here
is put on different courts (civil courts and criminal courts), different
proceedings, different standards of proof and different
terminology between civil and criminal cases.
3. Common law and equity
Gegensatz zu/Kontrast zu
Gegensatzpaar
4
We have explained above how the expression common law can be
used as a way of describing English law as a whole. Within the
English law itself, however, common law can also be used as a
contrast with the concept of equity. This subject will be addressed
in more detail in chapter 2. At this stage, it suffices to note, that the
pair of opposites – common law and equity – is a good example of
the deep historical roots of English law. These two types of law
11 Intro England.fm Seite 5 Freitag, 27. Juli 2012 12:06 12
Classification and Sources of English Law
used to be separate systems of jurisdictions until they merged
under the Judicature Acts 1873–1875. The common law courts
absorbed then the equitable jurisdiction.4
Common law in this context means the general principles of
English law developed by the courts from medieval times onwards.
These principles were, as the name implies, common throughout
the country – i.e. not merely a local law. Common law was
particularly concerned with criminal law, contract and tort.
For historical reasons, a parallel system of jurisdiction gradually
evolved, administered by the Lord Chancellor on behalf of the
Crown to ameliorate the harshness of the common law in certain
contexts. This system was called equity. It was concerned in
particular with trusts, aspects of land law and the law of property,
and grew out of the royal power to provide justice where the
common law courts had failed to do so.
Chapter One
Rechtsprechung – sich zusammenlegen/vereinigen – etwa: Gerichtsfassungsgesetz – eingliedern/
aufnehmen – billigkeitsgerichtlich
wie der Name schon sagt – verbreitet/
gebräuchlich
Kommunalrecht/hier: regionales
Recht
früher: Kanzler (des Königs)/später bis
2009: Justizminister – verbessern –
Härte/Strenge
etw. entwachsen/entspringen – für
Gerechtigkeit sorgen
versäumen
4. Case law and statutory law
Fallrecht – Gesetzesrecht
The distinction between case law and statutory law is crucial when
discussing the sources of English law. As English law is rooted in
judge-made law, cases heard and decided by the courts are a
major source of law. Therefore the phrase "the common law" – in
this context often synonymous with case law – usually signifies the
law that is created by the decisions of judges rather than by
legislation.
äußerst wichtig/entscheidend
seine Wurzeln haben in
The latter constitutes of statutory law, which also has an eminent
place in English law. The most important type of legislation is the
Act of Parliament (also called a statute).
bedeutend
Both, legislation and case law will be illustrated in subchapter IV.
erklären/darstellen
Hauptquelle – Ausdruck/Wendung
bezeichnen/kennzeichnen
und (eben) nicht
Gesetzgebung
Gesetz
5. Common law and civil law
Looking at the different legal systems across the world, the term
common law can also be used to contrast the English legal system,
based more on pragmatic case law principles, with Continental
civil law systems based on abstract principles often recorded in
formal codes of law.
4 Be aware, however, if there is a conflict between the rules of the common law and equity,
"equity shall prevail", a principle that is true even today, cf. chapter 2.
erfassen/schriftlich niederlegen
Vorrang haben/sich durchsetzen
5
11 Intro England.fm Seite 6 Freitag, 27. Juli 2012 12:06 12
Chapter One
Classification and Sources of English Law
6. Other legal classifications
beschränken auf
materielles Recht – Verfahrens-/formelles Recht – vorschreiben – verbieten – regeln/ordnen
Art/Weise – durchsetzen
Gerichtsverhandlung – bestimmen –
Ablauf – pl.: Prozess/Verfahren
inländisches/nationales Recht
inländisch
anwendbar – durchsetzbar
ausländisch/AuslandsÜbereinkommen – Vertrag – ausarbeiten – unterzeichnen – ratifizieren/
(Vertrag) zustimmen
Internationales Privatrecht/Kollisionsrecht
Rechtsgebiet
geltend/einschlägig
hier: Gerichtsstand – Rechtsfall mit
Auslandsbezug
zustimmen/akzeptieren
Europäische Union
Europäische Menschenrechtskonvention
überführen
6
There are some other general methods of classifying the law which
are not confined to English law.
There is a distinction between substantive law and procedural law.
Substantive law prescribes, proscribes and regulates areas of
human activity; it defines rights and duties, such as crimes and
punishments in the criminal law, civil rights and responsibilities in
the civil law. Procedural law provides a set of rules regarding the
manner of enforcing substantive law – including the rules
observed in a court hearing and determining the course of civil or
criminal proceedings.
Another distinction is between domestic law and international law.
Domestic law (or national law) contains internal legal rules of a
particular country. It is only applicable and enforceable within the
frontiers of that country, such as English law is only applicable to
England and Wales. International law applies to the external
relationship of one country with another. It is contained in
conventions and treaties devised, signed and ratified by countries
so as to regulate activites in which they have common interest or
which take place across national boundaries.
A particular case of international law, closely associated with
English private law, is private international law – traditionally
known in England as conflict of laws. Private international law
generally stands for a proper field of law in every legal system. It is
primarily concerned with determining the applicable law and
jurisdiction in cases involving a foreign element, for example a
contract agreed to by parties located in different countries.
European law – whether derived from the European Union or the
European Convention on Human Rights – should be considered
today as part of English law, as the relevant treaties have been
transferred into English law by legislation passed by the UK
Parliament. The details will be presented in subchapter IV.
11 Intro England.fm Seite 7 Freitag, 27. Juli 2012 12:14 12
Classification and Sources of English Law
Diagram 1
Chapter One
graphische Darstellung/Schaubild
Classification of English Law
Private law ...
Public law ...
applies to persons in law and governs
primarily their legal positions and their
legal relationships between each other.
deals with the structure, powers and functions of
government and public authorities and their legal
relationships with their subordinate citizens
– and with each other.
Civil law ...
Civil law ...
means the law relating to crime and criminal offence
and is concerned with legal rules providing for that
certain forms of human conduct carry punishment
by the state.
in a broad sense, used as the opposite of criminal
law: Its courts, proceedings standards of proof and
terminology differ from the ones under criminal law.
Common law ...
Equity ...
means the general principles of English law
developed by the courts from medieval times
onwards. It was particularly concerned with
criminal law, contract and tort.
was a parallel system of jurisdiction, administered by
the Lord Chancellor on behalf of the Crown to
ameliorate the harshness of common law. It was
particularly concerned with trusts, aspects of land
law and property law.
Case law ...
Statutory law ...
is judge-made law and the major source
of English law.
comes from legislation and is also
an important source of English law.
Common law ...
Civil law ...
is also used to contrast the English legal system,
based more on pragmatic case law principles,
with Continental civil law systems.
Stands also for the Continental legal systems,
based on abstract principles often recorded in
formal codes of law.
IV. Sources of English law
The common law system in England is not set down in written codes
of law. Instead, English law is drawn from a variety of different
sources, which we shall set out below. This is in contrast to civil law
systems such as Germany, where legislation is primary and
exclusive source of law.
niederschreiben/-legen
beziehen von/in Anspruch nehmen
Historically, there are two main sources of law inside the English
legal system itself:
(1) (Domestic) legislation
(2) Case law (judicial precedent)
7
11 Intro England.fm Seite 8 Freitag, 27. Juli 2012 12:06 12
Chapter One
Classification and Sources of English Law
Rechnung tragen
Today we need also to take into account the effect of lawmakers
from outside the English legal system, so we have to add at least
two other important sources of law such as:
Recht der Europäischen Union
(3) European Union law (EU law)
(4) The European Convention on Human Rights
Abteilung
These bodies of international law have been made part of English
law by legislation, as mentioned above.
nebensächlich/ergänzend
Gewohnheitsrecht – etwa: Lehrmeinungen anerkannter „Autoritäten“
Less obvious sources of law have been subsidiary sources such as
customary law or books of authority, but these do not play an
important role any longer. They will be shortly presented at the end
of this subchapter.
den Modetrend bestimmen
Since the fashion was set at the beginning of the 19th century by
the Code Napoléon,5 many Continental countries have codified
much of their law. On the Continent, therefore, there is a
preponderance of written – legislated – law.
überwiegen/vorherrschen
verabschieden
Thema/Angelegenheit
Vorstoß/Versuch
Warenverkauf
Diebstahl – umfangreich/weitreichend
SteuerR – UmweltR
GesellschaftsR
Rangfolge – höchste Instanz
kollidieren/sich widersprechen – vorgehen/Vorrang haben
(Ober)-Herrschaft/höchste Staatsgewalt
The situation in England is completely different. Over centuries the
principal source of law has been the jugdements of the courts,
because Parliament passed very few statutes applicable to the
general legal system (as opposed to dealing with political issues).
That remains the case for many areas of law – such as contract, tort
and trusts: in other words, most of the areas dealt with in this book.
There have been some small attempts at codification – for
example, for the sale of goods and in the criminal law the law of
theft, but nothing as wide-ranging as the German BGB.
Nevertheless, one should be careful about characterising all
English law as a case law based system. Some areas of law are
predominantly statute-based, such as tax and environmental law,
and some involve statute law to a much greater extent than case
law, for example company law (cf. chapter 5).
Moreover, there is an important order of priority. The ultimate
authority in English law is Parliament. Therefore, an Act of
Parliament can change the common law, but the common law
cannot change an Act of Parliament. Whenever case law and
statute law conflict, the latter takes precedence due to the concept
of parliamentary sovereignty.
For this reason, we will look at legislation first.
5 On 21, March 1804, Napoléon Bonaparte introduced the Code Civil (CC), re-named as Code
Napoléon. This codification of the French civil law has been valid in basic parts until today
in France.
8
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Classification and Sources of English Law
Chapter One
1. Legislation
There are two types of English legislation, legislation in
Parliament creating statutes or Acts of Parliament6 and delegated
legislation prepared by the executive with the authority of
Parliament. Both originate from a fundamental principle of the
English unwritten constitution: parliamentary sovereignty (also
called parliamentary supremacy).
(formelles) Gesetz – etwa: nachrangige Gesetzgebung (führt zu materiellen Gesetzen)
herrrühren/herkommen von
Parlamentssouveränität
a) Sovereignty of Parliament
The concept of parliamentary sovereignty means:
n the unlimited legislative competence of Parliament,
n and the absence of a competing legislative body.
The result of this is that any statute passed by Parliament cannot be
questioned or overruled by the courts. In particular, the courts
cannot test its constitutionality as can for example the Supreme
Court in the United States. In Germany, the Federal Constitutional
Court has the explicit power to nullify statutes, and its decisions are
binding all constitutional bodies including the German Federal
Parliament. Therefore the concept of parliamentary sovereignty can
be contrasted with the concept of popular sovereignty, where the
people are sovereign. Furthermore, the English Parliament may
change or repeal any previous legislation and is not bound by its
predecessors, nor by any decision of the courts.
Nichtvorhandensein – konkurrierend
in Zweifel ziehen – aufheben/außer
Kraft setzen
Bundesverfassungsgericht
für nichtig erklären
Volkssouveränität
aufheben
Vorgänger
The absolute sovereign power of Parliament derives from the Act of
Settlement 1700, making the monarch‘s powers conditional on the
approval of Parliament, Parliament is supreme to all other
government institutions – including any executive (government)
or judicial bodies. To be conscious of this most important
constitutional principle is vital for understanding the English legal
system and its role within the European context.
Hoheitsrecht/-macht – sich ableiten
von
b) Legislative procedure
Gesetzgebungsverfahren
Parliament consists of the House of Commons, the House of
Lords (both sitting in London) and the Queen.
(brit.) Unterhaus
(brit.) Oberhaus
Statutes can have different functions:
to create new law,
neues Recht schaffen
n
von etw. wissen/sich etw. bewusst
sein – unerlässlich
6 Statutes and Acts (of Parliament) have the same meaning and are used interchangeably.
9
11 Intro England.fm Seite 10 Freitag, 27. Juli 2012 12:06 12
Chapter One
Gesetze zusammenfassen/konsolidieren
ändern
ersetzen
wiederholen/wieder in Kraft setzen/
„neu inszenieren“
das Recht kodifizieren
Thema/Gegenstand
Erlass als Gesetz
Classification and Sources of English Law
n
n
neu formulieren
to consolidate statutes: Where an area of law is covered by
several different statutes, particularly where later statutes
amend earlier ones, a single replacement Act can be passed
without debate, called a consolidating statute7 superseding the
former statute(s). The law is not changed, but is re-enacted.
to codify the law: This means replacing the rules of the
common law by a statutory version of the same subject-matter
(enactment). The same can be achieved where an area of law
consists of a combination of common law, perhaps custom and
statute. The law can be re-stated as it is, or the opportunity can
be taken to make changes.
to review (amend or repeal) existing statutes.8
überprüfen
n
Entwurfsfassung – Gesetzesvorlage/vorschlag – Anhörung/Konsultation
All Acts of Parliament start off in draft form as a Bill. However, a Bill
may begin life as consultation paper, either as a white paper, which
sets out the government’s proposals for the new legislation, or as a
green paper produced to canvass opinion before draft legislation is
prepared.
sich ein Bild von der allgemeinen Meinung verschaffen
Anwendungsbereich – Gesetzesvorlage für ein allgemeingültiges Gesetz –
Gesetzesvorlage im privaten Interesse
Depending on their area of application Bills can be either Public
Bills or Private Bills.
Regierungsvorlage
Public Bills are usually Government Bills, introduced by the
government as part of its programme of legislation. They are of
general application. Another type of Public Bill is the Private
Member’s Bill, proposed by an individual Member of Parliament of
either House. They often deal with relatively narrow issues.9
von allgemeiner Geltung
Parlamentsabgeordneter
Private Bills are legislation which attects a limited section of the
population, either by reference to locality, to a particular family or
a group of individuals.10 Private Bills are comparatively rare – on
average less than 5 per year since 2000.
sich unterziehen/durchmachen
das Recht beobachten
Wohnsiedlung
10
Before a Bill becomes an Act it must undergo five stages in each
House, usually starting in the House of Commons. Private Bills have
a slightly different procedure.
7 E.g. the Companies Act 1985 replaced the Companies Acts 1948, 1967, 1976, 1980. Today
superseded by the Companies Act 2006.
8 Under the Law Commissions Act 1965, the Law Commission was set up as an independent
body with the responsability to keep the law under review and to recommend reform
where needed with the aim to ensure that the law is fair, modern, simple, and as costeffective as possible.
9 E.g. the Sunbeds (Regulation) Act 2010 places a duty on sunbed businesses to prevent use
by persons under 18.
10 E.g. the Nottingham Parc Estate Act 1990 dealing with the maintenance of the common
parts of a privately-owned housing estate in that city, and how the costs are to be paid for
the owners of the homes.
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Classification and Sources of English Law
Chapter One
(1) First Reading – formal presentation of the Bill to Parliament
which accepts it into the legislative procedure; the Bill is not
debated at this stage.
(2) Second Reading – main debate dealing with the general
principles of the Bill.
(3) Committee Stage – the text of the Bill is examined clause by
clause and amendments are proposed.
(4) Report Stage – any amendments made at (3) are reported
back to the House and voted on.
(5) Third Reading – final debate and vote on the Bill as amended.
Lesung
Once the Bill has passed all these stages (within one session of
Parliament, which ends each year in late October/early November)
it is finally presented to the Queen for her formal approval, the
Royal Assent. By constitutional convention, the monarch does not
refuse Royal Assent. The last occasion when this happened was in
1708, when Queen Anne refused her assent to a Bill to raise an army
to resolve unrest in Scotland. In centuries past, the monarch has
signed Bills and/or attended Parliament to give Royal Assent in
person, but neither is the current procedure. In practice, Royal
Assent is given by a committee of three Peers11 (Lords Temporal)
including the Lord Chancellor.
durchgehen (Antrag/Gesetz) – Legislaturperiode
Debatte/Aussprache
Ausschuss – Satz für Satz
Abänderungsantrag/Gesetzesänderung
zurückmelden
abstimmen
Zustimmung
königliche Genehmigung
anwesend sein/beiwohnen
aktuell/jetzig
weltlicher Lord
On the day the Bill receives Royal Assent it becomes an Act (it is
enacted). The Act comes into force immediately upon Royal
Assent, unless the Act itself states otherwise.
c) Delegated legislation
Most Acts of Parliament address complicated matters.
Consequently the Act itself – which had to be passed within the
fairly short time limit of a Parliamentary session – may only be able
to lay down a framework of general principles. Therefore,
Parliament may delegate the power to prescribe the details to the
government or to other suitable persons or bodies with the
sufficient knowledge and time to prepare the detailed provisions
which are then contained in a statutory instrument. The name of
a statutory instrument usually ends in Order or Regulations. The
advantage of this delegation is, above all, that Parliament is
relieved from a burden. Indeed, statutory instruments form the
lion’s share of statutory law (on average 3,400 per year) rather than
Acts (about 40 per year).
11 A Peer is a Member of the House of Lords. Some titles are hereditary but most Members are
Life Peers.
ziemlich
Grundstruktur/Rahmenbedingungen
übertragen – vorschreiben/anordnen
von einer Last befreien
Löwenanteil
vererblich
11
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Chapter One
Ermächtigungsgesetz
Voraussetzung – Umfang/Reichweite
Verhaltensregeln
(örtliche) Verordnung/(Orts-)Satzung
in Frage stellen
lat.: über die Befugnisse hinausgehen
richterliche Nachprüfung
Classification and Sources of English Law
Law by statutory instrument is made with the authority of
Parliament granted by an enabling or parent Act. That Act
provides the requirements and scope of the delegated legislation,
also known as subordinate or secondary legislation.
There are other types of delegated legislation, such as codes of
practice, bye-laws of local authorities, rules of professional and
other bodies, and orders in council, but these are beyond the scope
of this book.
Delegated legislation is subject to Parliamentary and judicial
control. Often the parent Act provides that the statutory
instrument has to be laid before Parliament for approval. Delegated
legislation can be challenged in the courts on the ground of being
ultra vires, i.e. beyond the powers of the person or body who made
it. The process is called judicial review.
Diagram 2
Legislation
Parliamentary sovereignty
Parliament consists of the Queen, the House of Lords and the House of Commons.
Parliament has an unlimited legislative competence.
There is no other competing legislative body.
Making of Acts of Parliament
Enabling government to issue Delegated legislation
Statutes
About 40 per year
Can
– create new law
– consolidate statutes
– codify the law
– review existing statutes
Framework of general principles on a specific topic.
Can not be changed by common law.
Statutory instruments
About 3,400 per year
Is made
– with the authority of Parliament granted by a
parent Act, delegating powers to government or
other suitable persons or bodies
– in order to relieve Parliament from burden
Prepares the detailed provisions for the topic.
Can be challenged in the courts.
Legislative procedure
Judicial review
Bills (public or private)
– First Reading -> formal presentation
– Second Reading -> main debate on general
principles
– Committee Stage –> detailed examination
– Report Stage -> vote on amendments
– Third Reading -> final debate and vote on the Bill
as amended
Royal Assent -> enactment
12
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Index
Acceptance ...............................................121, 128, 133
communication of ................................................129
made by post..........................................................132
mailbox rule ............................................................132
postal rule ...............................................................132
stipulated methods of.........................................131
unconditional.........................................................128
Administration of justice........................................... 28
Administrative Court .................................................. 44
Administrative law ..................................................3, 36
Advertisement ...............................................122 f., 138
Advocates....................................................................64 f.
Aliens................................................................................ 92
Alternative business structures ....................... 55, 65
Alternative dispute resolutions .............................. 38
Anglo-Saxon .................................................................. 28
Animal.............................................................................. 92
Appellate Committee of the
House of Lords .................................... 18, 41, 46, 74
Appellate courts........................................................37 f.
Assignment ..................................................................224
Association
articles of..................................................................106
memorandum of...................................................106
unincorporated......................................................108
Attorney ................................................................... 51, 53
Attorney-General .................................................. 34, 62
Bankrupt(s)..................................................................... 92
Bar, the...................................................................... 52, 61
Bar Standards Board ................................................... 60
Barristers ........................................................... 51, 58, 63
chambers ................................................................... 60
fees ............................................................................... 62
fields of activity........................................................ 59
organisation.............................................................. 60
training and qualification .................................... 61
Battle of forms.............................................................129
Bill...................................................................................... 10
private ......................................................................... 10
private Members’ .................................................... 10
public........................................................................... 10
Bills of exchange ........................................................119
Books of authority ....................................................... 26
Breach of contract ........................................... 213, 216
anticipatory.............................................................213
repudiatory .............................................................213
remedies......................................................... 216, 221
Business liability .........................................................183
Capacity (legal) to contract .......................... 152, 162
corporations ...........................................................159
drunkards.................................................................158
minors .......................................................................152
persons of unsound mind..................................158
Cases.......................................................................... 73, 86
228
citation and reference............................................81
citators.........................................................................82
handling......................................................................86
on the Net...................................................................79
Case law ............................................................. 2, 5, 7, 16
Caveat emptor............................................................. 143
Central Criminal Court................................................42
Certainty of terms...................................................... 163
Citation
for cases ......................................................................81
law reports .................................................................80
neutral (citation) ......................................................81
of statutes............................................................... 90 f.
City of London ........................................................42, 52
Civil jurisdiction.............................................................37
Civil law ...........................................................................4 f.
Claimant...........................................................................80
Classification of English courts ................................39
Classification of English law....................................1, 3
Classificaton of terms (of contract) ............171, 174
Commercial Court ........................................................44
Common law courts ....................................................29
Common law...........................................................29, 32
historical background............................................28
Commonwealth ............................................................48
Companies..........................................................111, 113
Company law .....................................................110, 114
Communication
of an offer ................................................................ 125
of acceptance......................................................... 129
Conditions.................................................................... 171
Conflict of laws ................................................................ 6
Consideration .......................................... 121, 139, 148
definition of ............................................................ 140
executed .................................................................. 140
executory................................................................. 141
must need not be adequate but must
be sufficient......................................................... 142
must move from the promisee ........................... 141
must not be past..................................................... 140
part payment of debt.......................................... 145
performance of existing duties ....................... 144
rules of ...................................................................... 140
Constitution of the company................................ 105
Constitutional conventions ......................................26
Constitutional court .............................................36, 39
Constitutional law .......................................................... 3
Consumer........................................... 119 f., 182 f., 187
Contents of contract .......................................162, 174
certainty of terms ................................................. 163
conditions ............................................................... 163
contractual terms ................................................. 163
exemption clauses ......................................175, 188
express terms ......................................................... 163
implied terms......................................................... 167
innominate terms................................................. 172
12 Index.fm Seite 229 Freitag, 27. Juli 2012 3:20 15
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representations............................................163, 166
terms ................................................................163, 171
warranties ............................................................... 171
Contra proferentem rule........................................... 180
Contract ....................................................................116 ff.
acceptance.............................................................. 121
bills of exchange..........................................119, 224
breach of.........................................................213, 216
capacity (legal) .............................................152, 162
contents of.....................................................162, 174
consumer........................................119 f., 182 f., 187
discharge of a ...............................................209, 216
duress .................................................... 189, 197, 201
evidenced in writing ........................................... 119
for necessaries ....................................................... 153
for the sale of a business.................................... 207
for the sale of goods...................................168, 183
formalities ......................................................118, 121
formation of a ........................................................ 121
freedom of .....................................................117, 167
frustration .....................................................213, 215
history..............................................................116, 118
illegal by statute ................................................... 201
illegal at common law ........................................ 203
illegality.......................................................... 201, 209
in restraint of trade .............................................. 206
in the modern sense............................................ 116
in writing ................................................................. 119
injunction ................................................................ 220
made by deed...............................................117, 118
minors................................................................ 93, 152
misrepresentation............................. 189, 192, 197
mistake.........................................................188 f., 192
offer ........................................................................121 f.
of agency ................................................................ 225
of employment.............................................120, 206
of guarantee........................................................... 120
of sale........................................................................ 226
of service for the minor’s benefit.................... 154
privity of................................................................... 222
rescission ................................................................. 221
rule of privity of..................................................... 222
simple (informal)................................................... 117
solus agreement ................................................... 197
specific performance .......................................... 220
terms of ...........................................................163, 171
undue influence........................ 189, 197, 199, 201
unenforceable against minors......................... 157
unilateral.........................................................130, 140
valid .................................................................................153
voidable ................................................................... 188
voidable by minors ........................... 153, 155, 156
void................................................ 153, 157, 188, 205
Contractual intention .................. 121, 133, 138, 139
collective agreements ........................................ 138
commercial agreements.................................... 136
domestic agreements..........................................134
social agreements.................................................134
Contractual terms ......................................................163
conditions................................................................171
inominate terms ....................................................172
mere puffs................................................................163
representation........................................................163
warranties ................................................................171
Conveyancing/conveyances...........................54, 119
Corporate personality ..............................................106
Corporation..................................................................100
aggregate ................................................................100
capacity of ...............................................................159
registration under the
Companies Acts (incorporation)....................102
Royal Charter ..........................................................101
specific statute .......................................................102
creation................................................................. 100 f.
sole ......................................................................... 100 f.
types ..........................................................................100
Council of Europe ........................................................ 24
County courts......................................................... 19, 40
track system ....................................................... 40, 49
Court hierarchy, cf. hierarchy
of the courts
Courts, the English....................................................... 39
Courts............................................................................... 36
appellate .................................................................37 f.
civil ............................................................................... 38
criminal ....................................................................... 38
trial ...........................................................................37 f.
Court of Appeal ..................................................... 18, 45
Civil Division.............................................................. 45
Criminal Division ..................................................45 f.
Lords / Ladies Justices of Appeal....................... 45
Master of the Rolls .................................................. 45
Court of Chancery.....................................................32 f.
Court of Common Pleas ............................................ 30
Court of Exchequer ..................................................... 29
Court of Justice of the EU, cf. European
Court of Justice
Court of King’s Bench ................................................. 30
Court system (English) ............................................... 36
Criminal jurisdiction.................................................... 37
Criminal law ......................................................................4
Crown Court................................................................... 42
Crown Prosecution Service ...................................... 63
Curia regis................................................................. 29, 31
Current Law.................................................................... 82
Current Law Case Citator, The ............................ 83
Custom ............................................................................ 25
Damages ................................................................33, 217
unliquidated ................................................................. 218
liquidated ...................................................................... 218
mitigation of loss .....................................................217 f.
229
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Deed ..................................................................117 f., 212
Defendant....................................................................... 80
Delegated legislation ................................................. 11
Denning, Lord .................................18 ff., 68, 129, 137,
148 ff., 166, 179, 185
Dining in Hall................................................................. 61
Digest, The ..................................................................... 82
Discharge of a contract.................................. 209, 216
agreement ...............................................................212
breach .......................................................................213
frustration ............................................................... 213
performance ...........................................................209
severable contracts ..............................................210
Distinguishing precedents ....................................... 19
Divisional court(s) ........................................................ 43
Doctrine
of consideration ................................................ 145 f.
of frustration...........................................................215
of fundamental breach of contract ............ 181 f.
of innominate terms ............................................173
of precedent ..........................................................16 f.
of promissory
estoppel............................................. 147 ff., 151 f.
of substantial performance ...............................210
of ultra vires .............................................................160
of waiver...................................................................148
Drunkards .....................................................................158
Duress .........................................................189, 197, 201
economic .................................................................198
Equitable remedies ...................................................216
Equity ................................................ 4, 28, 31 f., 36, 148
Equity acts in personam ......................................... 35
Equity follows the law ............................................. 35
Equity shall prevail ................................................... 34
Equity will not suffer a wrong
to be without a remedy ........................................ 34
Equity will not assist a volunteer.......................... 35
He who comes to equity must
come with clean hands .................................... 35
historical setting...................................................... 32
maxims of .................................................................. 34
term.............................................................................. 32
European (Union) law ....................................... 6, 8, 22
supremacy ................................................................. 23
European Convention on
Human Rights................................................8, 24, 49
European Court of Justice ................................. 22, 49
European Court of Human Rights.......................... 49
Evidenced in writing
Exemption clauses........................................... 175, 188
and reasonableness .............................................184
construction............................................................180
control at common law ......................................176
doctrine of fundamental breach
of contract ......................................................... 181 f.
230
incorporation ......................................................... 176
control under the UCTA ..................................... 182
Express terms.............................................................. 163
Family
jurisdiction .................................................................44
matters ........................................................................41
proceedings...............................................................40
fees
barristers .....................................................................62
solictiors......................................................................57
Formation of a contract .......................................... 121
Forms of action ......................................................... 30 f.
Fraudulent misrepresentation.............................. 193
Freedom of contract........................................117, 167
Frustration...........................................................213, 215
Fundamental breach of contract......................... 181
General Council of the Bar ........................................60
George III (King)..............................................................87
Golden rule, the ............................................................13
Halsbury’s Statutes of England and Wales ..... 87 f.
Henry VIII (King)..............................................................74
Hierarchy of the courts.................................17, 37, 68
High Court (of Justice) .........................................19, 42
Chancery Division....................................................44
Family Division .........................................................44
Queen’s Bench Division.........................................43
House of Commons ....................................................... 9
House of Lords............................................ 9, 18, 46, 79
Illegality ..................................................... 189, 201, 209
by statute................................................................. 201
at common law...................................................... 203
contracts in restraint of trade........................... 206
public policy ........................................................... 204
Immunity (of judges)...................................................69
Implied terms.............................................................. 167
by the court ............................................................ 169
by custom................................................................ 170
by statute................................................................. 168
Impossibility ................................................................ 214
Incorporation ........................................... 105, 108, 111
effects of .........................................................105, 108
Inferior court(s)..................................................37 ff., 74
Injunction ..................................................................... 220
Innocent misrepresentation.................................. 195
Innominate terms...................................................... 172
Inns of Court............................................................... 60 f.
dining and education, in.......................................62
dining in Hall .............................................................62
Insanity.............................................................................98
Insurance contracts .................................................. 224
Intention to create ...........................................................
legal relations, cf. contractual intention
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International courts.....................................................49
International law ..................................................... 6, 25
Interpretation of statutes, cf. statutory
interpretation
Invitatio ad offerendum............................................ 123
Invitation to tender .................................................. 124
Invitation to treat ...................................................... 123
Itinerant justices ...........................................................29
James I (King) .................................................................34
Judges ..............................................................................71
appointment .............................................................66
County courts (circuit/district)............................40
Court of Appeal (Justices of Appeal) ................45
High Court (puisne) ................................................42
immunity ....................................................................69
impartiality.................................................................69
independence (judicial) ........................................67
magistrates’ courts (justices of
the peace)..............................................................70
removal .......................................................................70
remuneration............................................................70
retirement ..................................................................70
Supreme Court (Justices of the SC)...................46
tasks and responsabilities ....................................68
training........................................................................66
Judicial Appointments Commission .....................67
Judicial College .............................................................66
Judicial Committee of the
Privy Council ................................................................47
Judicial precedent..................................... 2, 16, 21, 30
binding........................................................................17
deviating from precedents ..................................19
Court of Appeal........................................................18
distinguishing...........................................................19
House of Lords..........................................................18
overruling...................................................................20
persuasive ..................................................................17
reversing.....................................................................20
stare decisis, principle of........................................16
Supreme Court of the UK .....................................18
Judicial Studies Board.................................................66
Judiciary....................................................................36, 65
Head of.................................................................67, 71
Jurisdiction
appellate.....................................................................37
family ...........................................................................44
in family matters......................................................41
in personam ...............................................................35
in rem ...........................................................................35
Juristic persons.......................................................92, 99
personality .............................................................. 100
Justices
of Appeal ....................................................................45
of the Peace...............................................................41
of the Supreme Court .....................................46, 79
King’s Council .......................................... 25, 28, 31, 46
King’s Counsel............................................................... 52
Land law........................................................................226
Law of contract, cf. contract
Law reporting......................................................... 74, 86
Law report(s).................................................................. 73
All England Law Reports....................................... 78
Case citator.............................................................83 f.
Current law.............................................................83 f.
English Reports, the ............................................... 75
Incorporated Council of Law
Reporting of England and Wales, the ............ 76
Law Reports, the...................................................... 76
modern reports........................................................ 76
pre-1865 reports...................................................... 74
Weekly Law Reports, the ...................................... 78
Year books ................................................................. 74
Law Society .................................................................... 55
Lay
magistrates......................................................... 50, 70
people ......................................................................... 41
Leap-frogging ............................................................... 47
Legal adviser.................................................................. 51
Legal capacity to contract, cf. capacity
Legal personality.............................................. 108, 111
Legal profession .................................................... 51, 53
history ......................................................................... 51
Legal Services Board................................................... 64
Legal system, English ................................. 1, 9, 16, 28
Legislation .........................................................................7
delegated................................................................... 11
legislative procedure ................................................9
sovereignty of Parliament.......................................9
Letters of intent ..........................................................174
Licensed conveyancer................................................ 54
Limited liability ................................................. 106, 110
Limited Liability Partnership..................................110
Literal rule, the .............................................................. 13
Lord Chancellor ...................................... 5, 25, 32 f., 67
Lord Chief Justice.................................................. 46, 67
Magistrates..................................................................... 70
Magistrates’ courts ............................................... 19, 41
Majority ........................................................................... 93
Master of the Rolls ................................................ 33, 45
Mere puff.......................................................................163
Ministry of Justice ........................................................ 49
Minority ........................................................................... 93
Minors ..............................................................93, 97, 152
contract ..................................................................... 93
marriage ..................................................................... 95
property...................................................................... 95
right of action........................................................... 95
tort................................................................................ 94
wills .............................................................................. 95
231
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miscellaneous rights and duties
outside civil law .................................................. 96
Mischief rule, the.......................................................... 13
Misrepresentation ..................................189, 192, 197
fraudulent ................................................................193
innocent ...................................................................195
negligent..................................................................194
remedies...................................................................195
silence as ..................................................................196
Mistake .............................................................188 f., 192
common ...................................................................190
mutual.......................................................................189
unilateral ..................................................................191
Mitigation of loss ................................................... 217 f.
Natural persons ............................................................ 92
Negligent misrepresentation ................................194
Negotiable instruments ..........................................224
bill(s) of exchange....................................... 119, 224
No writ no remedy......................................................... 31
Norman Conquest ....................................................... 28
Obiter dicta ..................................................................... 17
Offer...................................................................121 f., 127
and advertisement ........................................... 122 f.
invitation to treat ..................................................123
to the world at large ............................................122
made by post..........................................................131
communication of ................................................125
of a reward...............................................................122
revocation of....................................................... 125 f.
termination of ........................................................125
Old Bailey........................................................................ 42
Ombudsman.................................................... 56, 64, 67
Open access to courts ................................................ 50
Order of the Coif........................................................... 52
Overruling precedents............................................... 20
Parliament..................................................................... 8 f.
Parliamentary sovereignty, cf. sovereignty
of Parliament
Parol evidence rule....................................................164
Parties (to the action) .......................................... 80, 84
Part payment of a debt............................................145
Partnership...................................................................109
law ..............................................................................109
limited liability partnership...............................110
Performance ................................................................209
of existing duties...................................................144
specific ......................................................................220
strict rule, the..........................................................209
substantial performance, doctrine of ............210
tender of...................................................................212
Persons in law ......................................................92, 115
Persons of unsound mind................................98, 158
Plaintiff....................................................................80, 116
232
Pleader ......................................................................51, 58
Precedent, cf. judicial precedent
Price-fixing agreements.......................................... 224
Private limited company......................................... 104
share capital ........................................................... 104
director..................................................................... 104
members.................................................................. 104
Private law......................................................................... 3
Privity of contract, rule of ....................................... 222
exceptions at common law............................... 225
general rule............................................................. 222
statutory exceptions............................................ 224
Privy Council............................................................47, 79
Probate practitioners ..................................................55
Procedural law................................................................. 6
Promissory estoppel
the doctrine of .......................................148 f., 151 f.
Property (law) ..................................................88, 91, 98
Public Bill .........................................................................10
Public law .......................................................................... 3
Public limited company .......................................... 103
company secretary............................................... 103
director..................................................................... 103
share capital ........................................................... 103
shareholders........................................................... 103
Public policy ................................................................ 204
Puisne judges .................................................................42
Purposive approach ....................................................14
Quantum meruit........................................................ 211
Queen, the ...............................................................9, 101
Queen’s Counsel....................................................59, 62
Ratio decidendi ..............................................................17
Registered companies ............................................. 102
Registrar of Companies ........................................... 105
Regulaton Authority (SRA) ........................................55
Remedies .................................................. 195, 216, 221
breach of contract ................................................ 216
common law........................................................... 216
damages ........................................................... 33, 217
mitigation of loss ...............................................217 f.
unliquidated........................................................... 218
liquidated ................................................................ 218
equitable.................................................................. 216
injunction ................................................................ 220
rescission ................................................................. 221
specific performance........................................... 220
Representations ................................................163, 166
Rescission ..................................................................... 221
Reserved legal activities......................................54, 64
Reversing precedents .................................................20
Revocation of an offer ..........................................125 f.
Roll of Solicitors.............................................................56
Royal Assent ...................................................................11
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Sale of goods (contracts for) ........................168, 183
Serjeants-at-law ............................................................52
Silence as misrepresentation................................ 196
Simple (informal) contracts ................................... 117
Solicitor-General...........................................................62
Solicitor-advocate ........................................................54
Solicitors ...................................................................51, 53
fees ...............................................................................57
fields of activity ........................................................53
organisation ..............................................................55
Regulations Authority............................................55
training and qualification.....................................56
Solus agreement ....................................................... 197
Sources of English law.......................................1, 7, 27
Specific performance............................................... 220
Sovereignty of Parliament ................................... 9, 22
Standard form contracts................................129, 184
Stare decisis, principle of ............................................16
Statutes.....................................................................86, 91
citation .................................................................... 90 f.
handling statutes ....................................................91
Halsbury’s statutes of England
and Wales ......................................................... 87 f.
Statutory Interpretation......................................13, 15
Statutory law.................................................................... 5
Substantive law............................................................... 6
Superior court(s)......................................... 37 f., 41, 74
Supreme Court of Judicature............................33, 41
Supreme Court of the UK .....................18, 41, 46, 79
Termination of an offer........................................... 125
Terms of a contract, cf. contractual terms
Textbooks........................................................................26
Trade Unions ...............................................................109
Trial (courts) ............................................................ 37, 38
Third party rights ............................................. 222, 226
Trusts .......................................................................34, 224
Tudor dynasty ............................................................... 28
Uberrimae fidei...........................................................196
Ultra vires, the doctrine of .......................................160
Unborn children ........................................................... 98
Undue influence............................ 189, 197, 199, 201
Unincorporated associations.................................108
Unenforceable (contracts)...................157, 188, 205
Value in dispute ........................................................... 37
Vitiating factors ..........................................................188
illegality .................................................189, 201, 209
mistake............................................................ 188, 189
misrepresentation .............................189, 192, 197
undue influence and durness .......189, 197, 201
Void contracts ................................................... 188, 205
Voidable contracts.....................................................188
Waiver .................................................................. 148, 212
the doctrine of........................................................148
Warranties ....................................................................171
Wig .................................................................................... 52
William the Conqueror........................................ 28, 29
Woolf, Lord ....................................................... 49, 76, 81
Writ.................................................................................30 f.
system of .................................................................... 30
of assumpsit............................................ 31, 117, 139
of covenant ......................................................31, 117
of debt............................................................. 116, 139
233