AP Chemistry
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
9.1 Molecular Shapes
Read Sec. 9.1 and 9.2, then complete the Sample and Practice Exercises in these sections.
Sample Exercise 9.1 (p. 347)
Use the VSEPR model to predict the molecular geometries of
a) O3
b)
SnCl3-
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AP Chemistry
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
Practice Exercise 9.1
Predict the electron-domain geometry and the molecular geometry for
a) SeCl2
b)
CO32-
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AP Chemistry
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
The Effect of Nonbonding Electrons and Multiple Bonds on Bond Angles
•
•
•
•
Consider three molecules with tetrahedral electron domain geometries:
CH4, NH3, and H2O.
By experiment, the H–X–H bond angle decreases from C (109.5o in CH4) to N (107 o in NH3) to O
(104.5 o in H2O).

Since electrons in a bond are attracted by two nuclei, they do not repel as much as lone pairsTherefore,
the bond angle decreases as the number of lone pairs increases.
A bonding pair of electrons is attracted by two nuclei. They do not repel as much as lone pairs which are
primarily attracted by only one nucleus.
• Electron domains for nonbonding electron pairs thus exert greater repulsive forces on adjacent electron
domains.
• They tend to compress the bond angles.
• The bond angle decreases as the number of nonbonding pairs increases.
• Similarly, electrons in multiple bonds repel more than electrons in single bonds. (e.g. in Cl2CO the O–
C–Cl angle is 124.3 o, and the Cl–C–Cl bond angle is 111.4 o).
Cl
111.4o
Cl
C O
124.3o
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AP Chemistry
•
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
11 basic molecular shapes:
• Three atoms (AB2)
• Linear
• Bent
• Four atoms (AB3):
• Trigonal planar
• Trigonal pyramidal
• T-shaped
• Five atoms (AB4):
• Tetrahedral
• Square planar
• See-saw
• Six atoms (AB5):
• Trigonal bipyramidal
• Square pyramidal
• Seven atoms (AB6):
• Octahedral
Molecules with Expanded Valence Shells
•
•
AB5 (trigonal bipyramidal) or AB6 (octahedral) electron domain geometries.
•
Trigonal bipyramidal structures have a plane containing three electron pairs.
• The fourth and fifth electron pairs are located above and below this plane.
• In this structure two trigonal pyramids share a base.
•
For octahedral structures, there is a plane containing four electron pairs.
• Similarly, the fifth and sixth electron pairs are located above and below this plane.
• Two square pyramids share a base.
Consider a trigonal bipyramid:
• The three electron pairs in the plane are called equatorial;
• The two electron pairs above and below this plane are called axial;
• The axial electron pairs are 180 o apart and 90 o to the equatorial electrons;
• The equatorial electron pairs are 120 o apart;
• To minimize electron–electron repulsion, nonbonding pairs are always placed in equatorial positions
and bonding pairs in either axial or equatorial positions.
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AP Chemistry
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
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AP Chemistry
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
Sample Exercise 9.2 (p. 351)
Use the VSEPR model to predict the molecular geometry of
a) SF4
b)
IF5
Practice Exercise 9.2
Predict the electron-domain geometry and molecular geometry of
a) ClF3
b)
ICl4-
Shapes of Larger Molecules
•
In acetic acid, CH3COOH, there are three interior atoms: two C and one O.
•
We assign the molecular (and electron-domain) geometry about each interior atom separately:
• The geometry around the first C is tetrahedral;
• The geometry around the second C is trigonal planar; and
• The geometry around the O is bent (tetrahedral).
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AP Chemistry
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
Sample Exercise 9.3 (p. 352)
Eyedrops for dry eyes usually contain a water-soluble polymer called polyvinylalcohol, which is based on the
unstable organic molecule called vinyl alcohol. Predict the approximate values for the H-O-C and O-C-C bond
angles in vinyl alcohol.
Practice Exercise 9.3
Predict the H—C—H and C—C—C bond angles in the molecule shown, called propyne.
9.3 Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity
•
•
If two charges, equal in magnitude and opposite in sign, are separated by a distance d, then a dipole is
established.
The dipole moment, , is given by
 = Qr
• where Q is the magnitude of the charge.
•
We can extend this to polyatomic molecules.
• For each bond in a polyatomic molecule, we can consider the bond dipole.
• The dipole moment due only to the two atoms in the bond is the bond dipole.
• Because bond dipoles and dipole moments are vector quantities, the orientation of these individual
dipole moments determines whether the molecule has an overall dipole moment.
•
Examples:
• In CO2 each +CO- dipole is canceled because the molecule is linear.
•
In H2O, the +HO- dipoles do not cancel because the molecule is bent.
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AP Chemistry
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Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
Molecules with polar bonds can be either polar or nonpolar, depending on the molecular geometry.
Molecules containing polar bonds.
Two of these molecules have a zero dipole moment because their bond dipoles cancel one another, while the other
molecules are polar.
Sample Exercise 9.4 (p. 354)
Predict whether the following molecules are polar or nonpolar:
a)
BrCl
b)
SO2
c)
SF6
Practice Exercise 9.4
Determine whether the following molecules are polar or nonpolar:
a)
NF3
b)
BCl3
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AP Chemistry
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
9.4 Covalent Bonding and Orbital Overlap
•
valence-bond theory:
• A covalent bond forms when the orbitals on two atoms overlap.
• The shared region of space between the orbitals is called the orbital overlap.
• There are two electrons (usually one from each atom) of opposite spin in the orbital overlap.
•
As two nuclei approach each other their atomic orbitals overlap.
• As the amount of overlap increases, the energy of the interaction decreases.
• At some distance the minimum energy is reached.
• The minimum energy corresponds to the bonding distance (or bond length).
• As the two atoms get closer, their nuclei begin to repel and the energy increases.
• At the bonding distance, the attractive forces between nuclei and electrons just balance the repulsive
forces (nucleus-nucleus, electron-electron).
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AP Chemistry
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
9.5 Hybrid Orbitals
•
We can apply the idea of orbital overlap and valence-bond theory to polyatomic molecules.
sp Hybrid Orbitals
•
Consider the BeF2 molecule:
• Be has a 1s22s2 electron configuration.
• There is no unpaired electron available for bonding.
• We conclude that the atomic orbitals are not adequate to describe orbitals in molecules.
•
We know that the F–Be–F bond angle is 180 o (VSEPR theory).
•
We also know that one electron from Be is shared with each one of the unpaired electrons from F.
•
We assume that the Be orbitals in the Be–F bond are 180 o apart.
•
We could promote an electron from the 2s orbital on Be to the 2p orbital to get two unpaired electrons for
bonding.
• BUT the geometry is still not explained.
•
We can solve the problem by allowing the 2s and one 2p orbital on Be to mix or form two new hybrid
orbitals (a process called hybridization).
• The two equivalent hybrid orbitals that result from mixing an s and a p orbital and are called sp hybrid
orbitals.
• The two lobes of an sp hybrid orbital are 180 o apart.
•
According to the valence-bond model, a linear arrangement of electron domains implies sp hybridization.
• Since only one of 2p orbitals of Be has been used in hybridization, there are two unhybridized p orbitals
remaining on Be.
• The electrons in the sp hybrid orbitals form shared electron bonds with the two fluorine atoms.
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AP Chemistry
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
Formation of two equivalent Be—F bonds in BeF2.
Each sp hybrid orbital on Be overlaps with a 2p orbital on F to form a bond. The two bonds are equivalent to each other and
form an angle of 180°.
sp2 and sp3 Hybrid Orbitals
•
Important: When we mix n atomic orbitals we must get n hybrid orbitals.
•
Three sp2 hybrid orbitals are formed from hybridization of one s and two p orbitals.
• Thus, there is one unhybridized p orbital remaining.
• The large lobes of the sp2 hybrids lie in a trigonal plane.
• Molecules with trigonal planar electron-pair geometries have sp2 orbitals on the central atom.
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AP Chemistry
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Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
Four sp3 hybrid orbitals are formed from hybridization of one s and three p orbitals.
• Therefore, there are four large lobes.
• Each lobe points towards the vertex of a tetrahedron.
• The angle between the large lobes is 109.5 o
• Molecules with tetrahedral electron pair geometries are sp3 hybridized.
Valence-bond description of H2O.
The bonding in a water molecule can be envisioned as sp3 hybridization of the orbitals on O. Two of the four hybrid orbitals
overlap with 1s orbitals of H to form covalent bonds. The other two hybrid orbitals are occupied by nonbonding pairs of
electrons.
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AP Chemistry
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
Hybridization Involving d Orbitals
•
Current evidence suggests that hybridization involving d orbitals does not exist.
Hybrid Orbital Summary
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To assign hybridization:
• Draw a Lewis structure.
• Assign the electron-domain geometry using VSEPR theory.
• Specify the hybridization required to accommodate the electron pairs based on their geometric
arrangement.
• Name the geometry by the positions of the atoms.
Bonding in NH3.
The hybrid orbitals used by N in the NH3 molecule are predicted by first drawing the Lewis structure, then using the
VSEPR model to determine the electron-domain geometry, and then specifying the hybrid orbitals that correspond to that
geometry. This is essentially the same procedure as that used to determine molecular structure (Figure 9.6), except we focus
on the orbitals used to make bonds and to hold nonbonding pairs.
Sample Exercise 9.5 (p. 361)
Indicate the hybridization of orbitals employed by the central atom in each of the following:
a)
NH2-
b) SF4
(see Sample Exercise 9.2)
Practice Exercise 9.5
Predict the electron-domain geometry and the hybridization of the central atom in
a)
SO32-
b)
SF6
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AP Chemistry
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
Ignore
hybridizations that
include d orbitals as
current evidence
suggests they do not
exist.
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AP Chemistry
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
9.6 Multiple Bonds
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Sigma () bonds: electron density lies on the axis between the nuclei.
• All single bonds are bonds.
•
What about overlap in multiple bonds?
• Pi () bonds: electron density lies above and below the plane of the nuclei.
• A double bond consists of one  bond and one  bond.
• A triple bond has one  bond and two  bonds.
•
Often, the p orbitals involved in  bonding come from unhybridized orbitals.
Multiple bonds.
In almost all cases, single bonds are σ bonds. A double bond consists of one σ bond and one π bond, and a triple bond
consists of one σ bond and two π bonds.
•
For example: ethylene, C2H4, has:
• One  and one  bond.
• Both C atoms sp2 hybridized.
• Both C atoms with trigonal planar electron-pair and molecular geometries.
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AP Chemistry
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
•
For example: acetylene, C2H2:
• The electron-domain geometry of each C is linear.
• Therefore, the C atoms are sp hybridized.
• The sp hybrid orbitals form the C–C and C–H  bonds.
• There are two unhybridized p orbitals on each C atom.
• Both unhybridized p orbitals form the two  bonds;
• One  bond is above and below the plane of the nuclei;
• One  bond is in front and behind the plane of the nuclei.
•
When triple bonds form (e.g., N2), one  bond is always above and below and the other is in front and
behind the plane of the nuclei.
Formation of σ and π bonds in formaldehyde, H2CO.
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AP Chemistry
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
Sample Exercise 9.6 (p. 364)
Describe how the bonds in formaldehyde are formed in terms of overlaps of appropriate hybridized and
unhybridized orbitals.
Practice Exercise 9.6
Consider the acetonitrile molecule:
a) Predict the bond angles around each carbon atom
b) Describe the hybridization at each of the carbon atoms
c) Determine the total number  and  bonds in the molecule.
Resonance Structures, Delocalization and  Bonding
•
So far all the bonds we have encountered are localized between two nuclei.
•
In the case of benzene:
• There are six C–C bonds and six C–H  bonds
• Each C atom is sp2 hybridized.
• There is one unhybridized p orbital on each carbon atom, resulting in six unhybridized carbon p orbitals
in a ring.
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AP Chemistry
Chapter 9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories
•
In benzene there are two options for the three  bonds:
• Localized between carbon atoms or
• Delocalized over the entire ring (i.e., the  electrons are shared by all six carbon atoms).
•
Experimentally, all C–C bonds are the same length in benzene.
• Therefore, all C–C bonds are of the same type (recall single bonds are longer than double bonds).
Sample Exercise 9.7 (p. 366)
Describe the localized  bonding in the nitrate ion, NO3-.
Practice Exercise 9.7
Which of the following molecules or ions will exhibit delocalized bonding? SO3, SO32-, H2CO, O3, NH4+.
General Conclusions
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•
•
Every pair of bonded atoms shares one or more pairs of electrons.
Two electrons shared between atoms on the same axis as the nuclei are  bonds.
 Bonds are always localized in the region between two bonded atoms.
If two atoms share more than one pair of electrons, the additional pairs form bonds.
When resonance structures are possible, delocalization is also possible.
Sample Integrative Exercise (p. 381)
Elemental sulfur is a yellow solid that consists of S8 molecules. The structure of the S8 molecule is a puckered,
eight-membered ring.
Heating elemental sulfur to high temperatures produces gaseous S2 molecules.:
S8(s)  4 S2(g)
a) With respect to electronic structure, which element in the second row of the periodic table is most
similar to sulfur?
b) Use the VSEPR model to predict the S-S-S bond angles in S8 and the hybridization at S in S8.
d) Use bond enthalpies (Table 8.4) to estimate the enthalpy change for the reaction just described.
Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic?
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