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Williams, Dawn
Professor Addison
ENGL
15 November 2010
I. Introduction
Each year, thousands of ballet schools and professional companies across the country
perform the Nutcracker to eagerly awaiting audiences. Many of the dancers are children
appearing for the first time, showing off their newly acquired skills to proud parents. Others are
seasoned amateurs, on their way to becoming professional dancers. The performance, a
Christmas holiday favorite, is frequently the only time the average American sees a ballet. It is
an annual pilgrimage to see an artistic performance of which they have no understanding of other
than to agree that both the dancing and the costumes worn are beautiful.
Ballet has a rich history that has seen it evolve from a mere party entertainment into an
art form unto itself. The dancers are shaped by years of intense training to make their
performances appear effortless.
The intent here is to impart knowledge about the art of ballet. This paper is not only about
the history of ballet, but also touches on the different schools of dance instruction, basic ballet
positions, terms, and highlights two of the greatest dancers to grace the stage. With this
information, it will be possible for the infrequent balletgoer to enhance their enjoyment of the
performance by possessing a rudimentary knowledge of its roots, the direction it has taken, and
basic terms and positions that are the foundation of ballet.
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II. History
Ballet began during the Italian Renaissance (15th and 16th century), a time that followed
the Dark and Middle Ages during which dance was forbidden. In 1489, a gentleman by the name
of Bergonzio di Botta threw a huge banquet in honor of the visiting Duke of Milan and his new
wife. While not the ballet that is known today, the entertainment for the party consisted of all of
ballet’s common elements: song, dance, and pantomime, marking the occasion as the origin of
the first ballet. This banquet helped to usher in a new type of performance in which the method
and style of dance became more complicated, moving from social dance to a more specialized
type of dance (Terry).
Balletti (Italian for dance) made its way to France with the assistance of Caterina Maria
Romula di Lorenzo de’ Medici (Catherine de Medici) (Terry 3). After her marriage to King
Louis II 1533 (Fussell), Catherine moved to France (Rinaldi, Encyclopaedia Brittanica). A
dancer herself, the new Queen enjoyed the performances of the dance and under her tutelage,
helped to create ballet de cour (court ballet). Ballet de cours are ballets performed at the royal
court. The first French court ballet was Le Ballet Comique de la Reine (the Queen’s Comic
Ballet) which debuted in Paris, October 15, 1581 (Terry). It was a choreographed song and dance
ballet that also included speech from the dancers/actors, the first of its kind (Rinaldi).
Court ballets became the norm in sixteenth and seventeenth century France. They were a
platform on which the royals could meet one another in a social setting and the dancers could
exhibit their capabilities to the entire royal court with a glamorous background. In addition,
ballet performances allowed the king to show off his wealth and pressure those he needed to ally
himself with (Kettering).
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It was also during the seventeenth century that ballet broke off into two separate types:
dramatic and masquerade. Dramatic ballet was much more like the ballet of today. Utilizing a
consistent plot of derived from either mythology or romance, the story was told through verse
and singing to music along with mimed dancing. Masquerade ballet differed in that comedic or
bizarre characters in strange costumes would perform dance that was not serious in nature; the
dance was often used to emphasize farce, satire, and comedy. In addition, there was no
discernable plot to these ballets. It is not known why, but eventually, masquerade ballets became
the norm for French ballet, causing dramatic ballet to disappear from the ballet scene (Kettering).
The switch from this type of ballet into today’s ballet began in 1661 when King Louis
XIV, a well-known dancer, created the Academie Royale de la Danse. It was here that the art of
ballet became more solidified, with the positions of the feet being taught as the norm and the
platform from which all subsequent moves begin (Terry). The same school employed JeanGeorges Noverre, a choreographer who called for dancers to do away with the gaudy and loud
costumes and to instead wear looser wear garments in order to draw more attention to the
dancer’s movements and facial expressions. He also wanted scenery and music to be a part of the
dance and show the story, not to be separate entities, each fighting for their own recognition.
Belgian dancer, Marie-Anne de Cupis de Camargo took Noverre’s vision to heart by shortening
her skirts and dancing in shoes without heels (Minden).
Ballet’s popularity quickly swept through Europe, becoming popular in England,
Denmark, Austria, Sweden, and Russia. In Russia, Imperial Ballet School was formed in the
early 18th century and shortly thereafter began to put on its own productions. Despite turning out
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fantastic dancers and attracting many accomplished and acclaimed choreographers, for the next
hundred years, Russia’s significance in the world of ballet was still overshadowed by the other
European nations. It wasn’t until 1847 that ballet aficionados began to take some note of Russian
ballet. Frenchman Marius Petipa came to St. Petersburg and teamed up with the composer
Tchaikovsky. The combination of Tchaikovsky’s musical talent and Petipa’s dance and
choreographic skills resulted in timeless classics such as The Nutcracker, The Sleeping Beauty,
Don Quixote, and portions of Swan Lake (including all of the famous Act III) (Terry).
Despite these glorious productions, France still remained the home of ballet, primarily
because the Paris Opera Ballet allowed its dancers to travel the world and dance with other
companies. Russia followed suit and in 1909, Russia’s best dancers, Fokine, Pavlova, and
Najinksy (among others), travelled to Paris and danced debuted their abilities with a company
put together by Russian director, Serge Diaghilev. Their skill at dance, choreography, and music
along with the scenery and costumes of the productions swept the ballet world off of its feet and
heralded a new era of ballet in which new techniques and greater creativity were to become the
norm (Terry).
Throughout time, ballet troupes travelling from Europe visited the United States. Though
American audiences enjoyed ballet, the dance never really took root in the United States until the
1930s. At that time, the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo relocated to the U.S. and American schools
of ballet began cropping up. As more ballet performances became the norm and modern dance
with its balletic roots, became more popular, ballet began to form a permanent fixture in the
United States (Terry).
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III. Ballet Schools and Methods of Dance
There are thousands of schools of ballet in the world. While each school teaches the
basics, the style between each country varies and is passed down to each dancer it produces. No
one style is better than another. Three of the most famous ballet companies are internationally
known for their distinctive styles, which are influenced by each other.
The oldest ballet school, the School of the Paris Opera Ballet, was created in the 1660s by
King Louis XIV. Originally called the Acadamie Royale de la danse before merging with other
subsequent French schools of ballet, this school is responsible for defining the five basic foot
positions as well as standardizing ballet as a dance form. Known for its sophisticated and elegant
style, the school focuses on body placement and movement in order to make sure that the
dancer’s movements and expressions communicate the meaning of the scene to the audience. In
addition, accuracy is of utmost importance and is what they school prides itself on.
Subsequently, all prospective students are subject to medical exams which reveal any
malformations that may prevent the prospective student from being able to achieve such
perfection (Minden).
Founded in 1920, The Royal Academy of Dance in London prides itself on its teaching
program which is a combination of five different styles (Minden) from five different countries:
Denmark, Russia, Italy, France, and England (Royal Academy of Dance). This combination
created what is known as the R.A.D. style (Minden, Royal Academy of Dance). The R.A.D. style
focuses primarily on classical technique, proper technique, and character dance (Minden, Royal
Academy of Dance). Students are separated by grade and taught specific moves for their
particular grade level. To ensure that students are progressing satisfactorily to the school’s
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standards, they are periodically tested and graded based on what they are expected to have
learned (Minden).
The Maryinsky Theater, based in St. Petersburg, Russia, was founded in 1783 (Illicheva).
The theater houses the ballet company known as the Kirov Ballet which was founded during the
1730s (Illicheva). Russian ballet has its beginnings in Italian and French ballet due to the fact
that the company’s first teachers were from Italy and France (Illicheva). Russian dancers quickly
absorbed the dance instruction they were taught and combined traditional Russian “dance,
musicality, spirituality, and expressiveness.” (Illicheva). Aided by French choreographer Marius
Petipa, dancers began mastering steps that he invented, linking them in such a fashion as to allow
dancers to move around from one side of the stage to the other (Bland). In addition, Petipa
impressed among his dancers speed, agility, and liveliness which he would showcase in his
productions (Bland). Around 1917, the passion of the Russian Revolution served as inspiration to
Russian dancers (Illicheva). They began developping the styles for which they became most
famous: dynamic leaps, multiple turns while remaining fixed in one staged position, and great
lifts of female dancers by their male partners (Illicheva). Russian ballet remains world renowned
for its dancers’ great athleticism and expressive character portrayals.
The New York City Ballet was originally the brainchild of wealthy businessman,
Lincoln Kirstein (New York City Ballet). Not a dancer himself, he had such a great love of the
art that he dreamed of creating a ballet company in the United States (New York City Ballet). In
1933, he met Russian choreographer, George Balanchine (New York City Ballet). The two of
them created four different ballet companies before finding lasting success with the New York
City Ballet in 1948 (New York City Ballet). The New York City Ballet dance style is
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distinguished by tall, athletic, long-legged dancers (Bland) as well as the use of the Balanchine
method (Bland). Created by George Balanchine, this particular method focuses on speed, timing,
precise footwork, and an elongated look (Bland). Performances feature dancer’s legs as opposed
to the traditionally upper body (Bland).
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IV. Dancers
Anna Pavlova
Anna Pavlova was born January 31, 1988 in St. Petersburg, Russia. She became
interested in ballet when she was 9 years old, after seeing The Sleeping Beauty at the Maryinsky
Theater. The following year, she was admitted to the Imperial Theater School. Her first official
ballet appearance was in The Magic Fairy Tale, a performance created by Marius Petipa and
made specifically for the students of the Imperial Theater School. Her first official debut as a
ballet dancer took place some six months before her graduation when she performed in La Fille
du Pharaon on October 21, 1898. Upon graduation, having foreseen her dancing abilities as
being those of a great dancer, she was permitted to bypass the traditional assignment to the corps
de ballet and was placed with the group of dancers known as a coryphée (dancers in groups of
three or four).
Within a year, Anna was dancing as a lead in performances (Lazzarini). Her 1907
performance in ‘The Swan’ became her signature role (Lazzarini, Carbonneau). The ballet itself
is considered to “symbolize the art” in that it utilizes both upper and lower body movement
equally to convey the expression of the piece (Carbonneau).
As a lead ballerina, Anna frequently travelled throughout Russia, Europe, and the United
States (Lazzarini). In 1918 however, while performing in Germany, the German government
declared war on Russia (Lazzarini). She was able to escape to London but due to World War I
and the subsequent Russian Revolution, she was never able to return to her home country
(Lazzarini).
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Anna expanded her audience base by
performing in the successful 1916 film,
“The Dumb Girl of Portici” (Lazzarini).
She also continued touring the world,
including Cuba, South America, Egypt,
India, and Asia in her travels until her
death shortly before her 50th birthday in
The Hague (Lazzarini).
As a dancer, Pavlova’s light and
airy movements made her famous for her
portrayals of delicate birds and flowers
(Columbia, Lazzarini). Despite countless
hours of strengthening and practice, her
Wpclipart, fig. 1
body did not become muscular but instead, she maintained a look that is known as the
quintessential ballerina: Long dark hair pulled back tightly from her face, and a long, lithe, and
petite frame (Columbia). So flawless was the technical aspect of her dancing that it was
frequently overlooked and she was criticized for having no technique at all (Lazzarini). It was
this perfection that marked her as “the greatest ballerina of her time” (Columbia).
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Mikhail Baryshnikov
Mikhail Baryshnikov was born January 27, 1948 in Riga, Latvia to a high-ranking,
educated military man and his poorly educated seamstress wife (Acocella, Aria). His mother, an
avid fan of ballet, sometimes took him to see ballet productions (Aria). Always an active and
athletic child, Mikhail’s mother enrolled him in dance lessons at a studio that a friend of hers,
who had once danced with the Bolshoi, owned and taught at (Acocella, Aria). Unbeknownst to
his parents (until he announced it to them), Mikhail impulsively applied for admission to the
School of Opera and Ballet in Riga when he was twelve years old (Aria). His parents were
surprised, not knowing that he enjoyed dance enough to make such a commitment (Aria). In
reality, although Mikhail did enjoy dancing, he also knew that dancers were fully supported by
the Soviet Union enjoyed better standards of living than the average Soviet citizen (Aria). This
was his main goal in making such a move (Aria).
He was accepted and began the school’s nine-year course of instruction (Aria). Because
of his short stature and thick, muscular limbs, as well as his coming into ballet at such a late age,
and his baby face, he was not expected to become a great dancer, merely a demi-caractere (nonleading roles)(Acocella, Aria). Determined and focused, by his third year of school, he was
moved to the advanced classes and had the honor of having a male solo in a production created
solely for him (Aria).
In his quest to learn more and to dance better, Mikhail set his sights on the Vaganova
Choreographic Institute in Leningrad, the birthplace of Russian ballet and known as the best
ballet school in the world (Aria). He auditioned with famed Russian dancer and teacher,
Alexander Pushkin and unbeknownst to him at the time, was personally selected by Pushkin
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himself for admittance into the school (Smakov, Aria). For the next three years, Baryshnikov
studied dance along with regular educational studies (Smakov, Aria). In 1966, his senior year, he
danced in the annual senior pre-graduation recitals on the Kirov stage (Smakov). His
performance in Le Corsaire was so extraordinary that famed dancers and critics alike compared
him to Najinsky and even put him into a class by himself (Smakov, Aria). So great was his
performance and previous performances during his period as a student, that he was not only
admitted into the Kirov ballet, but was given the title of solo dancer, a move that meant he
bypassed the lower ranks of dancers in the Kirov’s hierarchical ranking system and went straight
to the top (Smakov, Aria).
Despite achieving such success at such a young age, Mikhail was not altogether happy
with his situation (Aria). At the time, the Soviet ballet had recently experienced the defection of
Anton Nureyev and therefore was keeping the movements of its dancers very close (Aria). Only
nineteenth century ballet classics and those that supported the Communist ideal were permitted
to be produced (Aria). Hampered by this restraint along with not being able to choose the
persons he wanted to dance with and only being permitted to dance a few times a year, Mikhail
grew disenchanted not with dance, but with the Soviet Union (Aria). Finally, in 1974, after
dancing in Don Quixote with the Kirov Ballet in Toronto, he defected and made his way to the
United States (Aria).
Once in the U.S., Mikhail quickly began working with the American Ballet Theater with
whom he made his official U.S dancing debut later that same year (Acocella). For the next ten
years, he danced in nineteenth and twentieth century ballets until becoming disinterested, he
turned to modern classical ballet, which was based on Russian classicism, then moved on to
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jazz ballet
as well as
American
classicism
(fast,
complicated
nineteenth
century
ballet)
(Acocella).
Mikhail
O’day. Fig. 2
danced with both the American Ballet Theater and the New York City Ballet company, bouncing
between the two (Acocella) until he became the artistic director of the American Ballet Theater,
a position he held until he quit in 1989 (Acocella). In 1990, he formed a small ballet troupe,
White Oak Dance Project, with fellow dancer, Mark Morris (Acocella). The group is different
from other ballet companies in that it never has more than 15 dancers at one time and all of the
dancers are of ages that in other ballet companies would be considered past their prime
(Acocella). In addition, Mikhail has the privilege of touring when and where he wants as well as
doing other side projects as well (Acocella).
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Mikhail Baryshnikov is considered the best male ballet dancer in modern history due to his
seemingly effortless dancing and ability as well as desire to attempt new and innovative dance.
V. Ballet Basics
In ballet, proper posture is a must. Without it, a dancer could permanently harm his or
herself, forcing them out of the profession before they’ve even started. When ballet dancer
stands, they must stand with their hips directly over the heels of their feet which are turned
outward with their legs rotated out from the hip socket (Speck).
There are five basic leg/foot positions which are the foundation for all subsequent moves
(Speck), along with five arm and two hand positions (Castle). When a dancer first begins to
dance, they must master these positions in order to move forward into the more complicated
moves (Speck). The buttocks and the leg muscles should be tightened and the abdomen held in,
the diaphragm lifted (Kirstein, et al.). For leg/foot positions, at no time should the feet be
clenched nor roll forward (Bowes). In addition, the dancer’s weight should be balanced evenly
between the two feet, with each foot bearing the weight equally (Bowes) .
The arms as well should be positioned properly and the fingers should not be stiff, but
gently curved, forming a soft ‘C’ shape (Speck, Minden).
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In the first position, both legs are
parallel to each other, heels together.
The knees follow the direction of the
feet, which are in an outward position.
Ballet Site, fig. 2
In this position, the neck is elongated,
shoulders down and the arms slightly
rounded on either side of the outer
legs. The fingertips do not touch the
thighs but are positioned at the middle
of the thighs (Speck, Minden).
Ballet Site, fig. 3
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Dancers glide from the first position
to the second by sliding one leg out.
In the second position, the foot and
leg position is similar to first, the
difference being that the legs are
spread apart so that the heels of the
foot are approximately at shoulderslength width (Speck).
Ballet Site, fig. 4
The arms, while still rounded, lift with the
shoulders, elbows, and wrists each slightly
lower than the other, palms turned slightly
outward. When viewed from the front, the
palms are visible (Speck).
Ballet Site, fig. 5
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To move from the second position
into the third, the dancer takes one
leg and glides it in front of them so
that the heel of one foot rests in front
of the middle of the other foot. The
hips should not twist during this
move, but remain faced outward
(Speck).
Ballet Site, fig. 6
The right arm, while still relaxed and
away from the body, comes to rest
slightly above the dancer’s belly button.
The left arm is positioned straight out to
the left of the body, fingers still relaxed
and gently curved with the palm facing
outward (Speck, Minden).
Ballet Site, fig. 7
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In the fourth position, the feet are
positioned similar as in the third
position however; the left leg comes
forward about one foot and the heel
should be along the same line as the
toe of the back foot.
Ballet Site, fig. 8
The right arm is lifted, the hand
hovering above the crown of the
dancer’s head while the left arm,
relaxed, curves inward and remains
out from the body, resting slightly
above the dancer’s navel.
Ballet Site, fig. 9
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For the fifth and final position, the
front foot slides back to meet the
back foot. The heel of the foot in
front ideally should be in line with
the toe of the back foot.
Ballet Site, fig. 10
With the arms, the right arm remains
raised, hand above the dancer’s
crown and the left arm mirrors the
gesture (Speck, Minden).
Ballet Site, fig. 11
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VI. Basic Ballet Moves and Terms
Every ballet performance is made up of a variety of techniques. While it is impossible to
list all of them, below is a list of a few of the most common steps and terms.
Arabesque :
There are five different types of arabesques. Each type however, entails the same
basic move: while keeping the body upright, hips moving slightly forward, one
straight leg is lifted directly behind the dancer (Speck, Minden).
Attitude:
Similar to the Arabesque, the attitude also has the dancer’s body remain upright
while lifting one bent (135 degrees) leg either to the front or the back of the
dancer (Speck, Minden).
Chasse:
The chasse is a step that is performed to link other steps together and can also be
used in conjunction with other steps to make a combination. Much like the gallop
of a horse, the step means that the legs are brought together in mid-air before the
dancer comes down on both feet (Speck).
Emboite:
The literal translation is ‘locked’. It is a step used to travel short distances in a
turn. The back leg becomes the front leg by passing under the knee of the front
leg (Gregory).
en devant:
Placement of a leg, foot, or arm in front of the body (Bussell).
en Pointe:
To dance on the tips of the dancer’s toes (Bussell).
Jete:
Jumping from one leg to another (Gregory).
Pirouette:
A one-legged turn that begins with a plie (Gregory).
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Passé:
Position in which the toe of the raised leg touches the inner knee of the standing
leg (Minden).
Pas de chat:
The literal translation is ‘step of a cat’. A jump in which both legs or knees are
lifted at the same time (Gregory).
Plie:
A knee bend (Gregory).
Releve:
To pull the body up en Pointe (Bussell).
Port de bras: How the arms are positioned (Gregory).
Sauté:
To jump
Tendu:
To stretch
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