MenuItem 6: {Topic 6} Learning and memory
Section A:
True or False
1. The process that results in changes in long-term memory is known as learning.
Answer: T
page 164
2. The left brain is responsible for interpreting things as component parts.
Answer: T
page 165
3. The right and left brains process stimuli the same way.
Answer: F
page 165
4. The use of the bell in Pavlov’s experiment immediately became the conditioned
stimulus.
Answer: F
page 170
5. The process of using an established relationship between a stimulus and
response to generate the same response to a different stimulus is known as
operant conditioning.
Answer: F
page 171
6. Marketers attempt to shape consumer behaviour by use of product sampling.
Answer: T
page 172
7. A manufacturer that introduces a new snack product by giving numerous free
samples may be using modelling learning.
Answer: F
pages 172 & 175
8. Reinforcement is anything that affects the likelihood that a given response will be
repeated in the future.
Answer: T
page 174
9. Memory is composed of two distinct physiological units: short- and long-term
memory.
Answer: F
page 178
10. In advertising terms, the code refers to the form in which the information is
presented
Answer: T
page 182
Section B:
Multiple Choice
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
6-1
Question 1
The information processing chain is:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Memory, stimuli, information processing, learning
Learning, memory, information processing, stimuli
Stimuli, information processing, learning, memory
Stimuli, memory, information processing learning
Answer: C
page 164
Question 2
Recognising a face and some individual elements occurs when we us:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Both sides of the brain
Neither side of the brain
Right brain only
Left brain only
Answer: A
page 165
Question 3
Conditioning refers to learning:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Based upon association of stimulus and response
Under low-involvement conditions
Under high-involvement conditions
Using elaborative activities
Answer: A
page 166
Question 4
A husband who buys his wife an expensive perfume for her birthday because the last
time he did so, his wife was very happy with the gift, is an example of learning based
on ___________________ theories.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Cognitive
Classical conditioning
Sycophantic
Behavioural
Answer: D
page 166
Question 5
The ‘Fly buys’ and other reward programs are examples of marketers using:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Operant conditioning
Iconic rote conditioning
Vicarious modelling
Classic conditioning
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
6-2
Answer: D
page 167
Question 6
Having an urge to buy hot chips after walking past a shop and smelling them on a
cold day is a(n):
a)
b)
c)
d)
Normal reaction
Unconditioned response
Conditioned response
Learned response
Answer: B
page 168
Question 7
When using classic conditioning, message or stimulus repetition is:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Not necessary
Slightly important
Very important
Confusing
Answer: C
page 170
Question 8
The use of an Australian theme song by Telstra and Qantas is an example of:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Classical conditioning
Modelling
Operant conditioning
Reasoning
Answer: A
page 170
Question 9
A manufacturer that introduces a new snack product by giving numerous free
samples is probably using:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Punishment conditioning
Cognitive learning
Answer: B
page 171
Question 10
Direct mail or personal contacts after a sale that congratulate the purchaser for
making a wise purchase involve:
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6-3
a)
b)
c)
d)
Classical conditioning
Modelling
Operant conditioning
Reasoning
Answer: B
page 172
Question 11
Shaping involves:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Encouraging (rewarding) partial responses leading to the final desired response
Structuring an overall advertisement to provide the desired interpretation
Modifying behaviour over time using classical conditioning
Modifying behaviour over time using iconic rote learning
Answer: A
page 172
Question 12
Reactions to rewards offered in operant conditioning are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
The same for everyone
The same for people in the same market segment
Based on individual drives
Based on the dollar value of the reward
Answer: C
page 172
Question 13
Reinforcement is:
a) Any positive response to behaviour
b) The result of repetition in a high-involvement situation
c) Anything that affects the likelihood that a given response will be repeated in the
future
d) Necessary for learning to occur
Answer: C
page 174
Question 14
When advertising personal care products, marketers:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Rarely use negative reinforcement
Often use negative reinforcement
Rarely use positive reinforcement
Use both positive and negative reinforcement
Answer: A
page 175
Question 15
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
6-4
Tim learns about various brands of running shoes as a result of closely reading
running shoe advertisements that he finds enjoyable. This is an example of:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Operant conditioning
Vicarious or modelling learning
Classical conditioning
Iconic rote learning
Answer: D
page 175
Question 16
Iconic rote learning is:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Learning by modelling other people's decisions
Cognitive learning
Operant conditioning
Learning the association between two or more concepts without conditioning
Answer: D
page 175
Question 17
Julie watches the reactions people have to Diana's new short skirt before deciding to
buy one. This is an example of:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Iconic rote learning
Classical conditioning
Vicarious or modelling learning
Operant conditioning
Answer: C
page 176
Question 18
Finding that her corner grocery store is out of canola oil, Jane decides to substitute it
with sunflower oil. This is an example of:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Reasoning
Iconic rote learning
Vicarious learning
Operant conditioning
Answer: A
page 176
Question 19
Semantic memory may contain:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Product characteristics
Usage situations
Affective reactions
All of the above
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
6-5
Answer: D
pages 178 & 180
Question 20
Concentrated fabric softener comes in sealed plastic pouches that have been
impregnated with the appropriate scent. This is an example of the use of:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Science
Sensory memory
Schematic memory
Episodic memory
Answer: B
page 179
Question 21
Short-term memory is:
a)
b)
c)
d)
A distinct physiological entity
That part of total memory that is currently in use
Used only briefly before information is transferred to long-term memory
The ability to recall a stimulus object
Answer: B
page 180
Question 22
Long-term memory:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Contains two types, semantic and episodic
Becomes shorter as we get older
Becomes longer as we get older
Contains two types, sensory and schematic
Answer: A
page 180
Question 23
An advertisement using the phrase ‘Do you remember where you were when...?’ is
making use of:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
Episodic memory
Sensory memory
Answer: C
page 181
Question 24
The code of an advertisement is:
a) The secret message in the advertisement
b) The identifying symbols used by the creative team
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c) The schema linking the parts of the advertisement
d) The form in which the information is presented
Answer: D
page 182
Question 25
Once a conditioned response is extinguished, it:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Can never be reactivated
Will only be reactivated by a new and different stimulus
Can be reactivated with a reminder of the conditioned stimulus
Is forgotten forever
Answer: C
page 182
Section C:
Short Answers
Question 1
Describe the role of learning in the stages of information processing.
Answer:
page 164
A stimulus is detected and processed or interpreted. The interpretation is then stored
or ‘filed’ in the brain with similar ideas. For example, if a friend tells you about the bad
service they received at a particular restaurant, you would most likely form a negative
opinion of the restaurant. When you see an advertisement for the restaurant
(stimulus), you would process the message by drawing on your knowledge, or
memory, of the restaurant and decide not to go there. Your ‘knowledge’ of the
restaurant would be based on what your friend told you.
Question 2
Explain why a pizza company might obtain a repetitive telephone number, for
example 9481 11 11, and put this number into a catchy jingle in their advertisements.
Answer:
page 165
The right and left brain work in opposite ways, but they work together in a
complementary way. The repetitive number is processed by the left brain, while the
right brain links the musical element with the brand name or product.
The left brain processes information in a very factual, ordered and analytical way. It
has the power to recall information, but it focuses on one task at a time. It does not
look at things holistically, but rather as individual component parts. The left brain is
more numerically oriented.
The right brain organises the component parts of stimuli and organises them into
meaningful holistic messages. This is based on gestalt theory. It is very visually
oriented and creative.
Question 3
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
6-7
What are two different learning theories, and what are the common themes between
them?
Answer
page 166
The two approaches to learning are behavioural and cognitive theories. Behavioural
theories are based on the idea that learning occurs almost exclusively as a result of
reinforcement of behaviour. That is, individuals are motivated to act in certain ways
because of the consequences of their behaviour.
Cognitive theories are based on the idea that learning occurs as a result of thinking
and mental processing.
These theories have the following common themes: stimulus, response, shaping,
conditioning, motivation, cues, reinforcement and involvement.
Question 4
What is operant conditioning and how can marketers use it?
Answer:
page 171
Operant conditioning involves reinforcement of behaviour and is based on the idea
that consequences influence behaviour. Consequences of behaviour that are seen
as rewards increase the likelihood of the behaviour happening again. Behaviour
which results in the consequence of punishment is likely to decrease the chance of
behaviour happening again.
Marketers use operant conditioning by offering sales promotions, such as a free set
of wine glasses when purchasing a certain amount of wine, or a free matching key
ring when you purchase a new wallet. Competitions are another common use of
operant conditioning. The reason marketers use these incentives, or rewards, is to
encourage purchase. The reward acts as reinforcement for the purchase decision.
Question 5
How are positive and negative reinforcement used by marketers?
Answer:
page 174
Positive reinforcement occurs in the form of rewards for particular behaviour. The
Fly Buys program is a good example of the application of positive reinforcement. You
may decide to get your car serviced at Kmart so that you can earn Fly Buys points.
When you receive your Fly Buys statement and see how many points you have
earned, your decision to use Kmart Tyre & Auto Service is further reinforced. You
feel good because you have received something extra. Many Fly Buys retailers offer
bonus points to encourage purchase of particular products.
Negative reinforcement occurs when a negative or bad consequence can be
avoided by engaging in a particular behaviour. Advertisements for pimple creams
targeting teenagers often suggest that if they don’t use the advertised brand to treat
pimples they might become a social outcast. The message is that by using brand X
pimple cream, unpleasant consequences can be avoided.
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
6-8
Question 6
What is vicarious learning, and how can it be used by marketers?
Answer:
page 176
With vicarious learning, consumers can see the results or rewards gained by others
who use the product. In the example of buying the same brand of jeans as friends, a
consumer would be seeking the reward of social acceptance.
Major sporting companies such as Adidas and Nike sponsor sporting stars such as
Lleyton Hewitt, Ian Thorpe and Cathy Freeman because these athletes are admired
by the target audience and they influence the behaviour of the target audience.
These athletes are role models and they guide and influence consumer behaviour.
Weight loss companies such as Jenny Craig and Weight Watchers also rely on
vicarious learning principles to attract clients who want to lose weight. By telling
personal stories and using ‘before’ and ‘after’ shots of people who have lost weight,
consumers form positive feelings about these brands and are more inclined to sign
up. Weight Watchers has used Sarah Ferguson to effectively promote its programs
over the past few years. She is a very high profile person who has been in the public
spotlight for many years. Sarah Ferguson elicits great sympathy from the target
audience for the media taunts about her weight problems. She is also associated
with royalty, so she has further credibility, particularly among mature women.
Question 7
What is reasoning and how can marketers use it?
Answer:
page 176
Reasoning is more complex than some of the other forms of learning. It involves
consumers learning by taking in new information and drawing conclusions by linking
it to existing concepts or knowledge. It often involves restructuring information that
we already have in our memory store. In the past decade, there has been a greater
focus on healthy eating and lifestyles. With the trend towards ‘low fat’ eating, the
Australian Dairy Corporation (now called Dairy Australia) noticed a decline in the
consumption of dairy products, including milk, because of the perception that milk is
high in fat. In 2001, the Australian Dairy Corporation launched a long-running and
very successful campaign called ‘Dairy the Food of Life’. The campaign is aimed at
encouraging greater consumption of dairy products by positioning them as an
essential part of a healthy lifestyle. In this case, information that consumers had
about wanting to stay healthy was combined with the messages about dairy
products. Dairy Australia is continuing to reinforce the idea that dairy products are
good for you and an essential part of a healthy lifestyle.
Question 8
How is schematic memory thought to work?
Answer:
page 179
A schema is a pattern of associations between concepts or past experiences. It is
like word association, only it involves more than just words. Gestaltists believe that
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
6-9
responses to stimuli are based on cognitive processing that draws from previous
experiences stored in the memory. In gestalt theory, experiences of individuals are
perceived by the senses and are interpreted and understood by relating them to
existing experiences stored in the memory. These ‘previous experiences’ are referred
to as ‘traces’. Gestaltists believe that traces are chemical elements stored in the
brain, so learning occurs when a trace system is developed and added to in a new
situation.
Question 9
Why is an understanding of sensory memory important for marketers?
Answer:
page 179
Sensory memory (working memory). This area of memory is simply the incoming
stimuli received by the senses. It lasts for less than 1 second and holds a very small
amount of information. It only holds between five and nine pieces of information at a
time. The implication for marketers is that although it is easy to expose consumers to
information, it is difficult to make a lasting impression. Therefore, messages must be
brief and attract attention. Use of strong images and music involving story lines can
be used to gain attention.
Question 10
What are the three main reasons we forget?
Answer:
page 182
There are three main causes of forgetting:
1. At the attention stage of information processing, the information does not pass into
the short-term memory.
2. Information is not encoded in short-term memory or sent to long-term memory.
3. Retrieval information may be buried deep in the long-term memory and cannot be
recalled.
Section D:
Essay Questions
Question 1
How are the principles of classical conditioning applied in marketing and advertising
today? Illustrate your explanation with examples.
Answer:
page 170
The principles of classical conditioning are commonly applied in marketing and
advertising today. Some of the most popular television advertisements are often
those which use catchy music or popular celebrities because they make us feel good.
The good feeling we have when we hear a popular song or see our favourite celebrity
is called an unconditioned response because there is an existing, or established,
relationship between the music or celebrity and your good feeling.
If the popular music or song is used in an advertisement for a particular type of car,
then the brand itself will come to elicit the same positive emotion as the music alone.
The good feeling we have about the product is called a conditioned response
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
6-10
because it is the pairing of the song with the product that actually makes you feel
good, rather than the brand itself. Another good example is the excitement created
around athletes at the Olympic Games. Australian swimming champion Grant
Hackett is sponsored by Uncle Toby’s. Hackett’s image rubs off on the actual brand
so that the brand itself elicits a favourable response. There are many examples of
sporting champions and celebrities being used to represent brands.
The use of pop music to give a car a ‘fun’ personality is using unconditioned stimulus
and response mechanisms. An unconditioned stimulus is something that
generates a natural response, such as the bouncy tune in the pop song. An
unconditioned response is the natural response that is generated when a stimulus
is perceived, such as the happy feeling generated by hearing bouncy music. The use
of reward schemes such as ‘fly buy’ points is making use of conditioned stimulus and
response mechanisms.
A conditioned stimulus is the stimulus that a person has ‘learned’ to respond to.
Being sent rewards statements and seeing what is available for points earned is a
conditioned stimulus. A conditioned response occurs as a result of a conditioned
stimulus. Choosing a store that gives fly buy points to make a purchase is a
conditioned response.
Question 2
Explain, using examples, why and how marketers use operant conditioning to
increase sales of products or services.
Answer:
page 171
Operant conditioning involves reinforcement of behaviour and is based on the idea
that consequences influence behaviour. Consequences of behaviour that are seen
as rewards increase the likelihood of the behaviour happening again. Behaviour
which results in the consequence of punishment is likely to decrease the chance of
behaviour happening again. Where behaviour results in neither rewards nor
punishments, the behaviour is likely to be extinguished. That is, it may not result in
any learning at all.
According to the principles of operant conditioning, the consumer must first engage in
a particular behaviour, followed by a specific consequence, before learning can
occur. Consumers learn through trial and error, where a reward acts as a motivator
for the behaviour to occur or not occur in the future. It is the availability of the reward
that motivates you to try or purchase the product.
In operant conditioning, consumers must actually use the product before learning can
occur. For example, you might be influenced to buy a new brand of shampoo
because it has a cash-back offer attached. The reward of the cash-back acts as
reinforcement for the decision. On the other hand, if you find that the new shampoo
brand leaves your looking hair dry and damaged, you won’t be likely to ever buy it
again, regardless of the incentives offered by the marketer. You have ‘learned’ that
this product performs poorly. In this case, your behaviour is still reinforced, but
negatively, rather than positively. The more favourable the outcome from a particular
behaviour, the more positive the response will be in future.
The reaction to a reward is based on individual drives. If a preexisting ‘condition’ or
‘drive’ exists, then an individual will respond. Free gifts are often used to encourage
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
6-11
trial. Customers often buy a new brand because they get something free with it, such
as a free set of wine glasses when purchasing a certain amount of wine, or a free
matching key ring when purchasing a new wallet.
However, before developing promotional programs, marketers should understand
what motivates customers. If you owned a dog, would you be tempted to buy a new
brand of dog food because it offers the chance to win a luxury holiday in a
competition? Many people would answer ‘yes’ to these questions. You wouldn’t aim a
competition with a prize of a backpacking adventure in Nepal to family with children
under 2 years old.
The reason marketers use these incentives, or rewards, is to encourage purchase.
The reward acts as reinforcement for the purchase decision.
Question 3
Choose a high involvement consumer product such as life insurance, car purchase or
home decoration materials, and create advertising copy stressing:
a) a positive reinforcement
b) a negative reinforcement
c) a punishment.
For each aspect, explain what the consumer would learn from the message.
Answer:
page 174
Answers will be dependant on the product chosen, but should reflect the theory of
each aspect.
Positive reinforcement occurs in the form of rewards for particular behaviour.
Congratulatory messages and rewards programs are good examples of the
application of positive reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement occurs when a negative or bad consequence can be
avoided by engaging in a particular behaviour. The key to negative reinforcement is
that the message implies that if you don’t engage in a particular behaviour or use a
particular product, you will suffer a negative consequence.
Punishment occurs when there is a consequence of behaviour that decreases the
likelihood of that behaviour happening in the future. For instance, showing grief and
distress at a burnt-out home because people were not insured shows punishment.
Punishment is used to encourage people not to engage in particular behaviour, or to
show what will happen if they do not do what the advertiser wants. It will be linked to
some form of risk.
Question 4
Describe the three stages of memory, and how marketers can make use of these to
make us remember their brands.
Answer:
page 178
Memory is a vital part of information processing and it results from learning. Memory
may be defined as ‘the total accumulation of prior learning experiences’. There are
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
6-12
three main stages of memory. These are sensory memory, short-term memory and
long-term memory.
The sensory memory acts like a filter for the short-term memory. It takes in stimuli
from the senses and passes that information through to the short-term memory.
Gaining our attention is important for the stimuli to be recognised and assessed by
the sensory memory. If the sensory memory does not notice the stimuli, the
information is ignored. Marketers often run ads on all free-to-air commercial channels
at the same time so it is noticed. The sensory memory only stores information for a
short time. It contains incoming information from our senses.
If the information is of interest to us it may move into the short-term memory.
Unless there is some repetition or reason for our retaining the short term memory, it
will be quickly forgotten. Marketers create ads that seem unusual or are memorable
using music and images so we will remember them.
Rehearsal, or repetition, of material in the sensory store will cause the information to
be transferred to the long-term memory. Messages are encoded between the shortand long-term memory. When information is presented in groups or chunks, it is more
likely to be remembered. Many companies use music or advertising jingles where
their phone number or message is split into chunks for ease of remembering.
Question 5
Identify three advertisements based on the different types of learning and
conditioning:
a) cognitive learning
b) classical conditioning
c) operant conditioning.
For each one, discuss the elements of the advertisement and how it uses the
identified type of learning.
Answer:
pages 166-172 and 175-177
Answers will depend on the advertisements chosen, but should reflect the theory.
Cognitive learning suggests that humans learn through thinking, reasoning and
problem solving, rather than direct experience or reinforcement. Rote learning most
commonly occurs in low involvement learning situations. It often involves consumers
being exposed numerous times to a particular message or stimulus.
Modelling involves consumers learning through observing and imitating the
behaviour of others. You might buy a particular brand of jeans because all your
friends wear that type. With vicarious learning, consumers can see the results or
rewards gained by others who use the product. In the example of buying the same
brand of jeans as friends, a consumer would be seeking the reward of social
acceptance.
Classical conditioning relies on association between stimuli and responses. The
principles of classical conditioning are commonly applied in marketing and
advertising today. Music and emotive images and constant repetition are used in
classical conditioning.
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
6-13
Operant conditioning involves reinforcement of behaviour and is based on the idea
that consequences influence behaviour. Consequences of behaviour that are seen
as rewards increase the likelihood of the behaviour happening again. Behaviour that
results in the consequence of punishment is likely to decrease the chance of
behaviour happening again. Where behaviour results in neither rewards nor
punishments, the behaviour is likely to be extinguished. That is, it may not result in
any learning at all.
Test Bank t/a Consumer Behaviour by Karen Webb
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