Nuclear Research Centres in India
Research Center
Place
Atomic Energy Commission
Bombay
Bhabha Atomic Research Center
Trombay (Bombay)
Electronics Corporation of India
Hyderabad
High Altitude Research Laboratory
Gulmarg (Kashmir)
Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute
Durgapur (West Bengal)
Central Mining Research Institution
Dhanbad (Bihar)
Indian Rare Earths, Ltd.,
Alwaye
Radio Astronomy Center
Ootacamund
Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics
Calcutta
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
Bombay
Tata Memorial Center
Bombay
Uranium Corporation of India
Jaduguda(Bihar)
Life Expectancy
Life expectancy at birth (in years) for the year 1997, in selected countries.(Source : Human Development
Report, 1999).
Country
Life Expectancy
Japan
80.0
Norway
79.0
Iceland
79.0
Switzerland
78.6
Sweden
78.5
Hong Kong
78.5
Australia
78.2
Italy
78.2
France
78.1
Greece
78.1
Spain
78.0
Cyprus
77.8
Barbodos
76.4
Hungary
70.9
Lithuania
69.9
China
69.8
Thailand
68.8
Kyrgyzstan
67.6
Uzbekistan
67.5
Brazil
66.8
Mangolia
65.8
India
62.6
Iraq
62.4
Myanmar
60.1
Comoros
58.8
Madagascar
57.5
Lesotho
56.0
Sudan
55.0
South Africa
54.7
Cambodia
53.4
Gabon
52.4
Senegal
52.3
Djibouti
50.4
Djibouti
50.4
Niger
48.5
Tanzania
47.9
Chad
47.2
Gambia
47.0
Cote d'lvoire
46.7
Mozambique
45.2
Central African Rebublic
44.9
Ethiopia
43.3
Burundi
42.4
Rwanda
40.5
All Developing Countries
64.4
Least Developing Country
51.7
Industrialised Countries
77.7
World
66.7
Noice Scale
Sounds are tiny vibrations that can travel through air and other materials. The loudness of a sound is
measured in decibels (db). Typical sound levels in decibels:
Note: 130 db causes damage to hearing.
1
Breathing
10 db
2
Wind in the trees
20 db
3
Whisper
20-30 db
4
Ticking Clock
30 db
5
House in a quiet street
35 db
6
Radio Music
50-60 db
7
Loud Conversation
60 db
8
Office Noise
60 db
9
Children Playing
60-80 db
10
Lawn mower
60-80 db
11
Vacuum cleaner
80 db
12
Traffic Noise
60-90 db
13
Sports Car
80-95 db
14
Heavy truck traffic
90-100 db
15
Loud Radio
100 db
16
Motor Cycle
105 db
17
Pneumatic drill
110 db
18
Thunder storm
110 db
19
Rock Music
120 db
20
Aircraft Noise
90-120 db
21
Jet takeoff(at 100 meter distance)
120 db
22
Jet Engine(at 25 meter distance)
140 db
23
Space Vehicle launch (from a short distance)
140-170 db
SOLAR SYSTEM
Diameter
3,040 Kilometer
Moons
1
Avg.Distance to Sun
5,865.5 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
248 Years
Pluto
1.
2.
3.
Facts
4.
Neptune
Diameter
49,000 Kilometer
Moons
8
Avg.Distance to Sun
4,497 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
165 Years
1.
2.
Facts
Uranus
This Planet is the farthest, the smallest, the darkest, the coldest
and arguably the strangest.
It follows the most elongated and tilted orbit in the solar
system.
Its moon, Charon, is nearly half its size - appears like a biplanet.
NASA used a new infra-red telescope, has learned that Pluto is
shrouded in frozen nitrogen- not methane as once thought.
Nitrogen makes 78% of the air.
3.
4.
It is denser & little smaller than Uranus.
Its Atmosphere appear blue, with quickly changing white clouds
often suspended high above an apparent surface.
Atmosphere constituents are mostly hydrocarbon compounds.
It Emits about 2.3 times more energy than it receives from the
sun and the Aurora phenomenon was noticed by Voyager II.
Diameter
52,096 Kilometer
Moons
17
Avg.Distance to Sun
2,852.8 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
84 Years
Facts
1.
2.
3.
Waterly Uranus is the only planet that lies on its side.
One pole, than the other, faces the Sun as it orbits.
Voyager-I found nine dark, compact rings around the planet and
a corkscrew-shaped magnetic field that stretches millions of
kilometers.
Diameter
6,755.2 Kilometer
Moons
2
Avg.Distance to Sun
225.6 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
687 Days
Mars
Facts
Venus
1.
2.
3.
Diameter
12,032 Kilometer
Moons
None
Avg.Distance to Sun
107.52 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
225 Days
1.
Facts
Mercury
The Viking probes failed to Beneath its thin atmosphere.
Mars is barren, covered with pink soil and boulders.
Long ago it was active, the surface is marked with dormant
volcanoes and deep chasms where water once freely flowed.
2.
Earth's twin in size and mass, sparingly hot Venus is perpetually
veiled behind reflective sulfuric-acid clouds.
Probes and radar mapping have pierced the clouds and carbondioxide environment to reveal flat, rocky plains & signs of
volcanic activity.
Diameter
4,849.6 Kilometer
Moons
None
Avg.Distance to Sun
57.6 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
88 Days
Facts
1.
2.
3.
4.
Tiny Mercury, slightly larger than Earth's moon.
Races along its elliptical orbital 1,76,000 kilometer per hour.
A speed that keeps it from being drawn into the Sun's gravity
field.
The crated planet has no atmosphere, days are scorching hot
and nights, frigid.
Diameter
12,732.2 Kilometer
Moons
1
Avg.Distance to Sun
148.8 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
365 Days
Earth
1.
Facts
Jupiter
Uniquely moderate temperature and the presence of oxygen and
copious water maker Earth the only planet in the solar system to
support life.
Diameter
1,41,968 Kilometer
Moons
16
Avg.Distance to Sun
772.8 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
11.9 Years
1.
2.
Facts
3.
Two Pioneer space probes photographed the Great Red Spot on
the Solar system's largest planet.
Voyagers I and II later showed it is an enormous eddy in the
turbulent cloud cover. Earth the only planet in the solar system
to support life.
They also spotted dusty rings, three new moons and volcanoes
on the Moon.
Diameter
1,19,296 Kilometer
Moons
20 or more
Avg.Distance to Sun
1,417.6 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
29.5 Years
Saturn
1.
Facts
2.
Voyager I found that the celebrated rings of the golden giant
Saturn are composed of thousands of rippling, spiraling bands
just 100 feets thick.
The moon Titan has a nitrogen atmosphere and hydrocarbons.
Diameter
13,84,000 Kilometer
Statellites
9 Planets
Sun
Age
4.5 billion years
1.
Facts
2.
3.
A rather ordinary, middle age star, the gaseous sun may reach a
temperature of 27-millon degrees Celsius at its core.
Its 11 years cycle is now approaching a solar maximum, a
period marked by frequent sunspots and flares.
On Earth, some radio waves will be disturbed and the amazing
sky streamers called Northern Lights will appear.
SCIENTIFIC MEASURES
AMPERE:
Unit of electric current. It is approximately equal to the flow of 6 x 1018 electrons per second.
ATOMIC WEIGHT:
The weight of an atom of hydrogen is taken as the standard; the respective weights of the atoms of all other
substances are expressed in terms of it. So when it is stated that the atomic weight of iron is 56, it is meant
that the atom of iron is 56 times as heavy as the atom of hydrogen.
ANGSTROM:
The unit of wavelength of light is Angstrom. 1 Angstrom = 10-8 cm. There is a bigger unit for measuring the
wavelength of infrared light; it is called a milli-micron and is equal to 10-7 cm. Micron =10-4 cm, is a still
bigger unit. Bar is the unit of atmospheric pressure; one bar is equal to a pressure of 106 dynes per sq cm.
CALORY
Calory is the unit of heat. It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature or one gram of water
through 1 C.
HORSE POWER:
The practical unit of power - the power of an agent which can work at the rate of 550 foot-pounds per second
or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. 1 HP=746 watts.
JOULE
Joule is the unit of work or energy. It is equal to 107 ergs. It is the energy consumed in one second in an
electrical circuit through which a current energy of one ampere is flowing against a potential difference of one
volt.
KNOT
Knot is a measure to know the speed of a ship.
LIGHT YEAR:
A light year is the distance light travels in one mean solar year, at speed of 1, 86,000 miles per second. It is
equal to 5,880,000,000,000 miles. It is used as a unit for measuring stellar distances.
NAUTICAL MILE:
A unit of distance used in navigation - one minute of longitude measured along the Equator. A Nautical Mile is
approximately equal to 6, 080 feet.
PRESSURE:
The pressure is expressed in pounds weight per sq cm. The pressure of the atmosphere is expressed in
millibars. One millibar = 1 dyne per sq cm. If the pressure are very high, they are expressed in multiples of
atmospheric pressure. 1 atmosphere is a pressure exerted by a column of mercury 76 cm high at sea level and
at a latitude of 45 .
QUINTAL:
Metric measure of weight; 100 kilograms = 1 quintal.
VOLT:
The unit of potential difference. It is that much potential difference which when applied to the ends of an
electrical conductor of resistance one ohm, the amount of energy consumed in the circuit in one second is one
Joule (=107 ergs).
WATT:
Unit of power - the rate of work done in joules per second; the energy expended per second by an unvarying
electric current of 1 ampere.
SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES
Altimeter is a special type of aneroid barometer, used in measuring altitudes.
Ammeter is an instrument to measure the strength of an electric current.
Anemometer is an instrument to measure the velocity and find the direction of the wind.
Audiometer is an instrument to measure difference in hearing.
Barometer is used for measuring atmospheric pressure.
Binocular is an optical instrument designed for magnified view of distant objects by both eyes simultaneously.
Calorimeter is an instrument for measuring quantities of heat.
Chronometer is a clock to determine longitude of a vessel of sea.
Clinical Thermometer is a thermometer for measuring the temperature of human body.
Calorimeter is an instrument for comparing intensities of colour.
Commutator is an instrument to change of reverse the direction of an electric current. In dynamo used to
convert the alternating current into direct current.
Computer is a technical device designed to find instantaneous solutions of huge and complex calculation
based on the information already fed.
Dynamo is a device for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Electroscope is an instrument for detecting the presence of electric charge.
Galvanometer is an instrument for measuring electric current.
Hydrometer is an instrument for measuring the relative density of liquids.
Hydrophone is an instrument for measuring sound under water.
Hygrometer is an instrument for measuring the relative humidity of the atmosphere.
Hygroscope is an instrument to show the changes in atmospheric humidity.
Lactometer is an instrument for measuring the relative density of milk.
Micrometer is an instrument used for accurately measuring small distances or angles.
Manometer is instrument to measure the pressure of gases.
Magnetometer is an instrument used to compare the magnetic moments and fields,
Mariner's Compass is an apparatus for determining direction, graduated to indicate 33 directions. The "N"
point on the dial indicates north pole and the "S" point, south pole.
Microscope is an instrument for magnified view of very small objects.
Periscope is an apparatus for viewing objects lying above the eye level of the observer and whose direct
vision is obstructed. It consists of a tube bent twice at right angles and having plane mirrors at these bends
inclined at angles of 45 to the tube.
Photometer is an instrument for comparing the luminous intensity of the sources of light.
Planimeter is a mechanical integrating instrument to measure area of a plane surface.
Pyknometer is an instrument used to measure the density and co-efficient of expansion of liquid.
Pyrheliometer is an instrument for measuring solar radiations.
Pyrometers are thermometers to measure high temperatures.
Quadrant is an instrument for measuring altitudes and angles in navigation and astronomy.
Quartz clock is a highly accurate clock used in astronomical observations and other precision work.
Radio micrometer is an instrument for measuring heat radiations.
Rain gauge is an instrument for measuring rainfall.
Refractometer is an instrument used to measure the refractive index of a substance.
Resistance thermometer is used for determining the electrical resistance of conductor.
Salinometer is a type of hydrometer used to determine the concentration of salt solutions by measuring their
densities.
Seismograph is an instrument used for recording the intensity and origin of earthquake shocks.
Sextant is an instrument used for measurement of angular distances between two objects.
Spectroscope is an instrument used for spectrum analysis.
Spectrometer is a type of spectroscope so calibrated as to make it suitable for the precise measurement of
refractive indices.
Spherometer is an instrument used for accurately measuring the curvature of spherical objects.
Sphygmomanometer is an apparatus for measuring blood pressure.
Spring balance is used to measure the mass of a body. It is preferred only when quick but approximate
determinations are to be carried out.
Stereoscope is an optical device to see two dimensional pictures as having depth and solidity.
Stethoscope is a medical instrument for hearing and analyzing the sound of heart and lungs.
Stroboscope is an instrument used for viewing the objects moving rapidly with a periodic motion and to see
them as if they were at rest.
Tangent galvanometer is an instrument for measuring the strength of direct current.
Telemeter is an apparatus for recording physical events happening at a distance.
Teleprinter is a communication medium for automatic sending, receiving and printing of telegraphic message
from distant places.
Telescope is an instrument for viewing distant objects as magnified.
Television is an instrument used for transmitting the visible moving images by means of wireless waves.
Thermometer is an instrument to measure the temperature.
Thermoscope is used for measuring the temperature change (approximately) of the substances by nothing
the corresponding change in volume.
Thermostat is an automatic device for regulating constant tempera-tures.
Transistor is a small device which may be used to amplify currents and perform other functions usually
performed by a thermionic value.
Vernier is an adjustable scale with marking of 10 sub-divisions of one-tenth of an inch or any other suitable
marking for measuring small sub-divisions of scale.
Viscometer is an instrument for measuring the viscosity, i.e. the property of resistance of a fluid to relative
motion within itself.
Voltmeter is an instrument to measure potential difference between two points.
SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES
Altimeter is a special type of aneroid barometer, used in measuring altitudes.
Ammeter is an instrument to measure the strength of an electric current.
Anemometer is an instrument to measure the velocity and find the direction of the wind.
Audiometer is an instrument to measure difference in hearing.
Barometer is used for measuring atmospheric pressure.
Binocular is an optical instrument designed for magnified view of distant objects by both eyes simultaneously.
Calorimeter is an instrument for measuring quantities of heat.
Chronometer is a clock to determine longitude of a vessel of sea.
Clinical Thermometer is a thermometer for measuring the temperature of human body.
Calorimeter is an instrument for comparing intensities of colour.
Commutator is an instrument to change of reverse the direction of an electric current. In dynamo used to
convert the alternating current into direct current.
Computer is a technical device designed to find instantaneous solutions of huge and complex calculation
based on the information already fed.
Dynamo is a device for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Electroscope is an instrument for detecting the presence of electric charge.
Galvanometer is an instrument for measuring electric current.
Hydrometer is an instrument for measuring the relative density of liquids.
Hydrophone is an instrument for measuring sound under water.
Hygrometer is an instrument for measuring the relative humidity of the atmosphere.
Hygroscope is an instrument to show the changes in atmospheric humidity.
Lactometer is an instrument for measuring the relative density of milk.
Micrometer is an instrument used for accurately measuring small distances or angles.
Manometer is instrument to measure the pressure of gases.
Magnetometer is an instrument used to compare the magnetic moments and fields,
Mariner's Compass is an apparatus for determining direction, graduated to indicate 33 directions. The "N"
point on the dial indicates north pole and the "S" point, south pole.
Microscope is an instrument for magnified view of very small objects.
Periscope is an apparatus for viewing objects lying above the eye level of the observer and whose direct
vision is obstructed. It consists of a tube bent twice at right angles and having plane mirrors at these bends
inclined at angles of 45 to the tube.
Photometer is an instrument for comparing the luminous intensity of the sources of light.
Planimeter is a mechanical integrating instrument to measure area of a plane surface.
Pyknometer is an instrument used to measure the density and co-efficient of expansion of liquid.
Pyrheliometer is an instrument for measuring solar radiations.
Pyrometers are thermometers to measure high temperatures.
Quadrant is an instrument for measuring altitudes and angles in navigation and astronomy.
Quartz clock is a highly accurate clock used in astronomical observations and other precision work.
Radio micrometer is an instrument for measuring heat radiations.
Rain gauge is an instrument for measuring rainfall.
Refractometer is an instrument used to measure the refractive index of a substance.
Resistance thermometer is used for determining the electrical resistance of conductor.
Salinometer is a type of hydrometer used to determine the concentration of salt solutions by measuring their
densities.
Seismograph is an instrument used for recording the intensity and origin of earthquake shocks.
Sextant is an instrument used for measurement of angular distances between two objects.
Spectroscope is an instrument used for spectrum analysis.
Spectrometer is a type of spectroscope so calibrated as to make it suitable for the precise measurement of
refractive indices.
Spherometer is an instrument used for accurately measuring the curvature of spherical objects.
Sphygmomanometer is an apparatus for measuring blood pressure.
Spring balance is used to measure the mass of a body. It is preferred only when quick but approximate
determinations are to be carried out.
Stereoscope is an optical device to see two dimensional pictures as having depth and solidity.
Stethoscope is a medical instrument for hearing and analyzing the sound of heart and lungs.
Stroboscope is an instrument used for viewing the objects moving rapidly with a periodic motion and to see
them as if they were at rest.
Tangent galvanometer is an instrument for measuring the strength of direct current.
Telemeter is an apparatus for recording physical events happening at a distance.
Teleprinter is a communication medium for automatic sending, receiving and printing of telegraphic message
from distant places.
Telescope is an instrument for viewing distant objects as magnified.
Television is an instrument used for transmitting the visible moving images by means of wireless waves.
Thermometer is an instrument to measure the temperature.
Thermoscope is used for measuring the temperature change (approximately) of the substances by nothing
the corresponding change in volume.
Thermostat is an automatic device for regulating constant tempera-tures.
Transistor is a small device which may be used to amplify currents and perform other functions usually
performed by a thermionic value.
Vernier is an adjustable scale with marking of 10 sub-divisions of one-tenth of an inch or any other suitable
marking for measuring small sub-divisions of scale.
Viscometer is an instrument for measuring the viscosity, i.e. the property of resistance of a fluid to relative
motion within itself.
Voltmeter is an instrument to measure potential difference between two points.
SCIENCE TERMINOLOGY
Science is knowledge, often as opposed to intuition, belief, etc. It is, in fact, systematized knowledge derived
from observation, study and experimentation carried on in order to determine the nature or principles of what
is being studied. There are many sciences, each concerned with a particular field of study. In each science
measurement plays an important part. In each science, too, a study is made of the laws according to which
objects react. Here are some sciences.
ACOUSTICSThe study of sound (or the science of sound).
ACROBATICS:The art of performing acrobatic feats (gymnastics).
AERODYNAMICS:
(i) The branch of mechanics that deals with the motion of air and other gases.
(ii) The study of the motion and control of solid bodies like aircraft, missiles, etc., in air
AERONAUTICS: The Science or art of flight.
AEROSTATICS:The branch of statics that deals with gases in equilibrium and with gases and bodies in them.
AESTHETICS:The philosophy of fine arts.
AETIOLOGY:The science of causation.
AGROBIOLOGY:The science of plant life and plant nutrition.
AGRONOMICS:The science of managing land or crops.
AGRONOMY:The science of soil management and the production of field crops.
AGROSTOLOGY:The study of grasses.
ALCHEMY:Chemistry in ancient times.
ANATOMY:The science dealing with the structure of animals, plants or human body.
ANTHROPOLOGY:The science that deals with the origins, physical and cultural development of mankind.
ARBORICULTURE:Cultivation of trees and vegetables.
ARCHAEOLOGY:The study of antiquities.
ASTROLOGY:The ancient art of predicting the course of human destinies with the help of indications deduced
from the position and movement of the heavenly bodies.
ASTRONAUTICS:The science of space travel.
ASTRONOMY: - The study of the heavenly bodies.
ASTROPHYSICS:The branch of astronomy concerned with the physical nature of heavenly bodies.
BACTERIOLOGY: The study of bacteria.
BIOCHEMISTRY: The study of chemical processes of living things.
BIOLOGY: The study of living things.
BIOMETRY:The application of mathematics to the study of living things.
BIONICS:The study of functions, characteristics and phenomena observed in the living world and the
application of this knowledge to the world of machines.
BIONOMICS:The study of the relation of an organism to its environments.
BIONOMY:The science of the laws of life.
BIOPHYSICS:The physics of vital processes (living things).
BOTANY:The study of plants.
CALISTHENICS:The systematic exercises for attaining strength and gracefulness.
CARTOGRAPHY:Science of Map Making.
CERAMICS:The art and technology of making objects from clay, etc. (Pottery).
CHEMISTRY:The study of elementary and their laws of combination and behaviour.
CHEMOTHERAPY:The treatment of disease by using chemical substances.
CHRONOBIOLOGY:The study of the duration of life.
CHRONOLOGY:The science of arranging time in periods and ascertaining the dates and historical order of past
events.
CONCHOLOGY:The branch of zoology dealing with the shells of mollusks.
COSMOGONY:The science of the nature of heavenly bodies.
COSMOGRAPHY: The science that describes and maps the main feature of the universe.
COSMOLOGY:The science of the nature, origin and history of the universe.
CRIMINOLOGY:The study of crime and criminals.
CRYTOGRAPHY:The study of ciphers (secret writings).
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY:The study of the structure, forms and properties of crystals.
CRYGENICS:The science dealing with the production, control and application of very low temperatures.
CYTOCHEMISTRY:The branch of cytology dealing with the chemistry of cells.
CYTOGENETICS:The branch of biology dealing with the study of heredity from the point of view of cytology
and genetics.
CYTOLOGY:The study of cells, especially their formation, structure and functions.
DACTYLOGRAPHY:The study of fingerprints for the purpose of identification.
DACTYLIOLOGY:The technique of communication by signs made with the fingers. It is generally used by the
deaf.
ECOLOGY:The study of the relation of animals and plants to their surroundings, animate and inanimate.
ECONOMETRICS: The application of mathematics in testing economic theories.
ECONOMICS:The science dealing with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.
EMBRYOLOGY:The study of development of embryos.
ENTOMOLOGY:The study of insects.
EPIDEMIOLOGY:The branch of medicine dealing with epidemic diseases.
EPIGRAPHY:The study of inscriptions.
ETHICS:Psychological study of moral principles.
ETHNOGRAPHY:A branch of anthropology dealing with the scientific description of individual cultures.
ETHNOLOGY:A branch of anthropology that deals with the origin, distribution and distinguishing
characteristics of the races of mankind.
ETHOLOGY:The study of animal behaviour.
ETYMOLOGY:The study of origin and history of words.
EUGENICS:The study of the production of better offspring by the careful selection of parents.
GENEALOGY:The study of family ancestries and histories.
GENECOLOGY:The study of genetical composition of plant population in relation to their habitats.
GENESIOLOGY:The science of generation.
GENETICS:The branch of biology dealing with the phenomena of heredity and the laws governing it.
GEOBIOLOGY:The biology of terrestrial life.
GEOBOTANY:The branch of botany dealing with all aspects of relations between plants and the earth's
surface.
GEOCHEMISTRY:The study of the chemical composition of the earth's crust and the changes which take place
within it.
GEOGRAPHY:The development of science of the earth's surface, physical features, climate, population, etc.
GEOLOGY:The science that deals with the physical history of the earth.
GEOMEDICINE:The branch of medicine dealing with the influence of climate and environmental conditions on
health.
GEOMORPHOLOGY:The study of the characteristics, origin and development of land forms.
GEOPHYSICS:The physics of the earth.
GERONTOLOGY:The study of old age, its phenomena, diseases, etc.
HELIOTHEARPY: The sun cure.
HISTOLOGY:The study of tissues.
HORTICULTURE:The cultivation of flowers, fruits, vegetables and ornamental plants.
HYDRODYNAMICS:The mathematical study of the forces, energy and pressure of liquid in motion.
HYDROGRAPHY:The science of water measurements of the earth with special reference of their use for
navigation.
HYDROLOGY:The study of water with reference to its occurrence and properties in the hydrosphere and
atmosphere.
HYDROMETALLURGY:The process of extracting metals at ordinary temperature by bleaching ore with liquids.
HYDROPATHY:The treatment of disease by the internal and external use of water.
HYDROPONICS:The cultivation of plants by placing the roots in liquid nutrient solutions rather than in soil.
HYDROSTATICS: The mathematical study of forces and pressure in liquids.
HYGIENE:The science of health and its preservation.
LCONOGRAPHY:Teaching with the aid of pictures and models.
LCONOLOGY:The study of symbolic representations.
JURISPRUDENCE:The science of law.
LEXICOGRAPHY:The writing or compiling of dictionaries.
MAMMOGRAPHY:Radiography of the mammary glands.
METALLOGRAPHY:The study of the crystalline structures of metals and alloys.
METALLURGY:The process of extracting metals from their ores.
METEOROLOGY:The science of the atmosphere and its phenomena.
METROLOGY:The scientific study of weights and measures.
MICROBIOLOGY:The study of minute living organisms, including bacteria, molds and pathogenic protozoa.
MOLECCULAR BIOLOGY:The study of the structure of the molecules which are of importance in biology.
MORPHOLOGY:The science of organic forms and structures.
MYCOLOGY:The study of fungi and fungus diseases.
NEUROLOGY:The study of the nervous system, its functions and its disorders.
NEUROPATHOLOGY:The study of diseases of the nervous system.
NUMEROLOGY:The study of numbers. The study of the date and year of one's birth and to determine the
influence on one's future life.
NUMISMATICS:The study of coins and medals.
ODONTOGRAPHY:A description of the teeth.
ODONTOLOGY:The scientific study of the teeth.
OPTICS:The study of nature and properties of light.
ORNITHOLOGY:The study of birds.
ORTHOEPY:The study of correct pronunciation.
ORTHOPEDICS:The science of prevention, diagnosis and treatment of diseases and abnormalities of
musculoskeletal systems.
OSTEOLOGY:The study of the bones.
OSTEOPATHOLOGY:Any disease of bones.
OSTEOPATHY:A therapeutic system based upon detecting and correcting faulty structure.
PALEOBOTANY:The study of fossil plants.
PALEONTOLOGY:The study of fossils.
PALYNOLOGY:The pollen analysis.
PATHOLOGY:The study of diseases.
PEDAGOGY:The art or method of teaching.
PHARYNGOLOGY:The science of the pharynx and its diseases.
PHENOLOGY:The study of periodicity phenomena of plants.
PHILATELY:The collection and study of postage stamps, revenue stamps, etc.
PHILOLOGY:The study of written records, their authenticity, etc.
PHONETICS:The study of speech sounds and the production, transmission, reception, etc.
PHOTOBIOLOGY:The branch of biology dealing with the effect of light on organisms.
PHENOLOGY:The study of the faculties and qualities of minds from the shape of the skull.
PHTHISIOLOGY:The scientific study of tuberculosis.
PHYCOLOGY:The study of algae.
PHYSICAL SCIENCE:The study of natural laws and processes other than those peculiar to living matters, as in
physics, chemistry and astronomy.
PHYSICS:The study of the properties of matter.
PHYSIOGRAPHY:The science of physical geography.
PHYSIOLOGY:The study of the functioning of the various organs of living beings.
PHYTOGENY:Origin and growth of plants.
POMOLOGY:The science that deals with fruits and fruit growing.
PSYCHOLOGY:The study of human and animal behaviour.
RADIO ASTRONOMY:The study of heavenly bodies by the reception and analysis of the radio frequency
electromagnetic radiations which they emit or reflect.
RADIOBIOLOGY:The branch of biology which deals with the effects of radiations on living organisms.
RADIOLOGY:The study of X-rays and radioactivity.
RHEOLOGY:The study of the deformation and flow of matter.
SEISMOLOGY:The study of earthquakes and the phenomena associated with it.
SELENOLOGY:The scientific study of moon, its nature, origin, movements, etc.
SERICULTURE:The raising of silk worms for the production of raw silk.
SOCIOLOGY:The study of human society.
SPECTROSCOPE:The study of matter and energy by the use of spectroscope.
TELEOLOGY:These study of the evidences of design or purpose in nature.
TELEPATHY:Communication between minds by some means other than sensory perception.
THERAPEUTICS:The science and art of healing.
TOPOGRAPHY:A special description of a part or region
TAXICOLOGY:The study of poisons.
VIROLOGY:The study of viruses.
ZOOLOGY:The study of animal life.
IMPORTANTS OF LAWS AND PRINCIPALS
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE:
When a body is immersed either wholly or partially in a fluid at rest, the apparent loss of weight suffered by it
is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it.
AVOGADRO's LAW:
Equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number of
molecules.
BLACK BODY RADIATION:
A black body absorbs heat or radiates heat more quickly than any other body.
BOILING POINT:
It increases with the increase of pressure. The presence of impurities also raises the boiling point of a liquid.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY:
A body will remain at rest only if the vertical line through the centres of gravity passes through the base of
support of the body.
COULOMB'S LAW:
The force between the two electric charges reduces to a quarter of its former value when the distance between
them is doubled.
FARADAY'S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS:
The amount of chemical change during electrolysis is proportional to the charge passed. The masses of
substances liberated or deposited by the same quantity of electric charge are proportional to their chemical
equivalents.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MATTER:
In chemical changes, matter is neither created nor destroyed. The sum total of the masses of all the products
of a chemical change is exactly equal to the sum total of the substances from which these products have been
formed.
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS:
The amount of heat given to a system is equal to the sum of the increase in the internal energy of the system
and the external work done. It is impossible to construct a continuous self-acting machine that can pump heat
energy from a body at lower temperature to a body at higher temperature.
LENZ'S LAW:
When an electric current is induced by a change in magnetic field, the induced current is always in such a
direction that its magnetic field opposes the change of field which causes the induction.
MASS - ENERGY EQUATION:
E = mc2, where E = quantity of energy released from the annihilation of matter of mass 'm', c = velocity of
light. It implies that mass and energy are interchangeable.
NEWTON'S LAW OF COOLING:
The rate at which a body cools or loses its heat to its surroundings is proportional to the excess of mean
temperature of the body over that of the surroundings, provided this temperature excess is not too large.
NEWTON'S UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION:
Every body in the universe attracts every other body with a force, directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION:
Everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled to change
that state by a force [called Law of Inertia].
The rate of change of momentum of a moving body is proportional to the applied force and takes place in the
direction of the force. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
OHM'S LAW:
The amount of current flowing in an electric circuit is governed by the voltage of the battery on dynamo which
powers it. In other words, the current through a conductor is directly proportional the potential difference
across the conductor and inversely proportional to its resistance.
RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT:
Light travels in a straight line. Total internal reflection takes place when a ray of light tries to pass from a
denser medium to a rarer medium at an angle of incidence more than the critical angle.
SOLAR SYSTEM
Diameter
3,040 Kilometer
Moons
1
Avg.Distance to Sun
5,865.5 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
248 Years
1.
Pluto
2.
3.
Facts
4.
Diameter
49,000 Kilometer
Moons
8
Avg.Distance to Sun
4,497 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
165 Years
Neptune
1.
2.
3.
4.
Facts
Uranus
It is denser & little smaller than Uranus.
Its Atmosphere appear blue, with quickly changing white clouds
often suspended high above an apparent surface.
Atmosphere constituents are mostly hydrocarbon compounds.
It Emits about 2.3 times more energy than it receives from the
sun and the Aurora phenomenon was noticed by Voyager II.
Diameter
52,096 Kilometer
Moons
17
Avg.Distance to Sun
2,852.8 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
84 Years
1.
2.
3.
Facts
Mars
This Planet is the farthest, the smallest, the darkest, the coldest
and arguably the strangest.
It follows the most elongated and tilted orbit in the solar
system.
Its moon, Charon, is nearly half its size - appears like a biplanet.
NASA used a new infra-red telescope, has learned that Pluto is
shrouded in frozen nitrogen- not methane as once thought.
Nitrogen makes 78% of the air.
Waterly Uranus is the only planet that lies on its side.
One pole, than the other, faces the Sun as it orbits.
Voyager-I found nine dark, compact rings around the planet and
a corkscrew-shaped magnetic field that stretches millions of
kilometers.
Diameter
6,755.2 Kilometer
Moons
2
Avg.Distance to Sun
225.6 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
687 Days
Facts
1.
2.
3.
The Viking probes failed to Beneath its thin atmosphere.
Mars is barren, covered with pink soil and boulders.
Long ago it was active, the surface is marked with dormant
volcanoes and deep chasms where water once freely flowed.
Venus
Diameter
12,032 Kilometer
Moons
None
Avg.Distance to Sun
107.52 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
225 Days
1.
2.
Facts
Diameter
4,849.6 Kilometer
Moons
None
Avg.Distance to Sun
57.6 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
88 Days
Mercury
1.
2.
3.
Facts
Earth
Earth's twin in size and mass, sparingly hot Venus is perpetually
veiled behind reflective sulfuric-acid clouds.
Probes and radar mapping have pierced the clouds and carbondioxide environment to reveal flat, rocky plains & signs of
volcanic activity.
4.
Tiny Mercury, slightly larger than Earth's moon.
Races along its elliptical orbital 1,76,000 kilometer per hour.
A speed that keeps it from being drawn into the Sun's gravity
field.
The crated planet has no atmosphere, days are scorching hot
and nights, frigid.
Diameter
12,732.2 Kilometer
Moons
1
Avg.Distance to Sun
148.8 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
365 Days
1.
Facts
Uniquely moderate temperature and the presence of oxygen and
copious water maker Earth the only planet in the solar system to
support life.
Diameter
1,41,968 Kilometer
Moons
16
Avg.Distance to Sun
772.8 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
11.9 Years
1.
Jupiter
2.
Facts
3.
Two Pioneer space probes photographed the Great Red Spot on
the Solar system's largest planet.
Voyagers I and II later showed it is an enormous eddy in the
turbulent cloud cover. Earth the only planet in the solar system
to support life.
They also spotted dusty rings, three new moons and volcanoes
on the Moon.
Saturn
Diameter
1,19,296 Kilometer
Moons
20 or more
Avg.Distance to Sun
1,417.6 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun
29.5 Years
1.
Facts
2.
Voyager I found that the celebrated rings of the golden giant
Saturn are composed of thousands of rippling, spiraling bands
just 100 feets thick.
The moon Titan has a nitrogen atmosphere and hydrocarbons.
Diameter
13,84,000 Kilometer
Statellites
9 Planets
Age
4.5 billion years
1.
Sun
2.
Facts
3.
A rather ordinary, middle age star, the gaseous sun may reach a
temperature of 27-millon degrees Celsius at its core.
Its 11 years cycle is now approaching a solar maximum, a
period marked by frequent sunspots and flares.
On Earth, some radio waves will be disturbed and the amazing
sky streamers called Northern Lights will appear.
COMMON BODY DISORDERS
ALLERGY: A special reaction to a certain substance such as pollen or certain foods (causing sneeze, skin
rashes etc). Allergy can be from any materials, even by colours etc.
ARTHRITIS: Inflammation of joints.
ASTHMA: A respiratory disorder caused by narrowing of bronchial tubes. It can be caused by infection or due
to allergy.
BRONCHITIS: Inflammation of bronchial tubes caused by bacteria or virus.
CANCER: An abnormal growth of body cells, often resulting in a malignant tumour.
DIABETES MELLITUS: Excess sugar in the body, when the body is not able to control the level of blood sugar
due to malfunctioning of pancreas when it produces inadequate insulin.
EPILEPSY: Unwarned and periodic loss of consciousness along with convulsions, due to nervous disorders.
MUMPS: An acute infection particularly in children and young adults in which there is swelling of neck and high
fever.
HEPATITIS: An infectious or inflammatory disease of the liver commonly identified by its primary symptoms
of jaundice.
HERNIA: A weakness of the muscle surrounding an organ allowing it to bulge through, often found in the
groin.
JAUNDICE: Excessive bilirubin (present in bile juice secreted by liver) in the blood, causes yellowing of eyes,
skin and even urine.
LEUKEMIA: Blood cancer
MEASLES: A contagious disease caused by virus, red rashes appear on the body along with fever.
MIGRAINE: A type of a headache followed by disturbed vision and no speech accompanied by nausea.
PELLAGRA: A disease caused by the deficiency of Vitamin B5. Its symptoms are 3D's: Diarrhoea, Dermatosis,
Dementila.
OSTEOMALACIA: A disease caused by shortage of VItamin D (calciferol) which results in softening of bones,
frequent fractures and bending of the backbone.
PLEURISY: Inflammation of the membrane that covers the lungs and lines the chest cavity.
RABIES: A viral disease transmitted by the saliva of infected animals. Symptoms include convulsions and
repulsion to water (hydrophobia).
RINGWORM: A skin diseases causing circular swellings on the skin. Transmitted through air-borne pores and
contact with infected person.
SLIPPED DISC: A painful condition in which a cartilage disc in the spine is displaced putting pressure on the
nearest nerve.
SMALL POX: A contagious viral disease, common among children, Symptoms are rashes on skin.
THROMBOSIS: Formation of blood clot in a blood vessel or in the heart causing death.
ULCER: An inflamed open sore on the skin, or on the membrane of a body cavity. Peptic ulcer is a condition in
which ulcer is there in the food pipe causing burning sensations.
COMMON DRUGS
ANAESTHETICS: Drugs that block sensory nerves and make the patient fully unconscious to prevent
him from feeling pain. In case of local anaesthesia a particular area is made senseless temporarily.
ANALGESICS: Drugs used to prevent or relieve pain like aspirin (acetyl salicylic acid).
ANTIBIOTICS: Drugs used to prevent growth of body germs and to destroy them as soon as possible.
Most common drugs under this category are penicillin, tetramycelin etc.
ANTIHISTAMINES: These drugs are used to relieve symptoms of asthma, hay fever and other
allergies.
ANTIPYRETICS: Drugs used to lower body temperature.
HORMONES: Drugs used to combat hormones deficiency that causes diseases. Drugs like insulin or
adrenaline come under this category.
NARCOTICS: Drugs that deaden the nervous system and prevent a person from feeling pain, e.g.
Opium and the derivatives such as codeline, heroin, morphine etc.
SEDATIVES: Drugs used to induce sleep.
TRANQUILLIZERS: Drugs that calm nervous system and prevent worry, tension, etc.
VACCINES: Drugs that are injected to help the body to develop resistance to diseases or
immunisation of the body.
COMMON HUMAN DISEASES AND AFFECTED BODY PART
DISEASE
AFFECTED PART
DISEASE
AFFECTED PART
AIDS
Immune system of the body joints
Malaria
Spleen
Arthritis
Joints
Meningitis
Brain
Asthma
Bronchial muscles
Ottis
Ear
Cataract
Eyes
Paralysis
Nerves and limbs
Conjunctivitis
Eyes
Polio
Legs
Glaucoma
Eyes
Pyarrhoea
Teeth
Diabetes
Pancreas and blood
Pleurisy
Lungs
Dermatitis
Skin
Rheumatism
Joints
Diphtheria
Throat
Pneumonia
Lungs
Dementila
Brain
Sinusitis
Facial bones
Eczema
Skin
Typhoid
Intestine
Goitre
Thyroid
Tuberculosis
Lungs
Hepatitis
Liver
Tonsillitis
Tonsils gland in throat
Jaundice
Liver
COMMON DISEASES
DISEASE:
It is a condition of the body or a part of it in which functions are distrubed or deranged.
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES:
Infectious as spread from infected person to health one.
They are of further two types:
Contagious:
Spread through direct contact. Examples: Chickenpox, mumps, syphilis, measles, dermatitis, eczema etc.
Non-contagious:
Spread through without incoming in direct contact.
Examples:Influenza, tetanus, malaria, tuberculosis etc.
NON-COMMUNICABLE:Not spreadable or non-infectious

 Deficiency diseases (hormonal and vitamin deficiency)
Degenerative diseases (diseases due to inactively working of body organs)
 Allergic diseases (diseases due to colour, dust etc.)
 Addiction
GENETIC DISORDERS: Haemophilia, colourblindness, sickle-cell anaemia, syndromes etc.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STD): Gonorrhoea, syphilis, trichomoniasis etc.
VIRAL DISEASES: Chicken pox, measles, polio, rabies, mumps, influenza, hepatitis, herpes, AIDS.
BACTERIAL DISEASES: Cholera, diphtheria, tuberculosis, leprosy, tetanus, typhoid, plague, whooping cough,
sore throat, pneumonia, gonorrhoea, syphilis, botulism.
FUNGAL DISEASES: Ringworm, athlete's foot, dhobie itch.
PROTOZOANS DISEASES: Amoebiasis, malaria, sleeping sickness, kalaazar, diarrhoea.
INSECT CARRYING DISEASES:
Mosquito (Anopheles female) - Malaria
Aedes
Dengu fever
Rat flea
Plague
Sand fly
Kalaazar
Tse-tse fly
Sleeping sickness
House fly
Cholera
Moon Important Facts
Average distance from Earth
3,84,365 km
Diameter
3,476 km
Ratio of diameter of moon to that of earth 1 : 3.7
Rotation speed
27 days, 2hrs, 43 min & 11.47Sec.
Revolution Speed
27 days, 7hrs, 43 min & 11.47 Sec.
Time taken by moonlight to reach earth
1.3 Sec
Percent of surface visible from earth
59%
First man to reach moon
Neil Armstrong and Edvin Aldrin on Apollo XI (1969)
Earth Some Important Facts
Age
4,550 million years
Mass
5.976 x 10kg
Volume
1.083 x 10 litres
Mean Density
5.518 kg/lt
Total Surface Area
510 million sq.km
Land Area
29.2% of the total surface area
Water Area
70.8% of the total surface area
Equatorial Diameter
12,755 km
Polar Diameter
12,712 km
Escape Velocity
11.2 km/sec
Highest Land Point
Mount Everest (8,852 m)
Lowest Land Point
Dead Sea (396 m)
Greatest Ocean Depth
Mariana Trench (11,033 m)
Equatorial Circumference
40,076 km
Polar Circumference
40,024 km
Mean Surface Temperature
14C
Maximum distance from sun (Aphelion)
About 152 million km
Minimum distance from sun (Perihelion)
About 147 million km
Rotation Speed
23 hrs, 56 min & 40.91 sec
Revolution Speed
365 days, 5hrs & 45.51 sec
Dates when days & nights are equal
Mar,21 (Vernal Equinox); Sept. 23 (Autumnal
Equinox)
Dates of longest days and shortest
nights
June 21 (Summer Solstice); Dec, 22 (Winter Solstice)
Nuclear Power Stations
1 Tarapur
In Maharashtra - India's oldest and biggest
2 Kalpakkam
In Tamil Nadu, called Indira Gandhi Nuclear Power Station
3 Rawatbhata
In Kota, Rajasthan
4 Narora
In Uttar Pradesh
5 Kaiga
In Karnataka
6 Kakrapara
In Gujarat
7 Kudankulam In Tamil Nadu, under construction with the assistance of Russia
Hydrosphere
Hydrosphere
Hydrosphere is the name given to all the water of the Earth in solid,
liquid and gaseous forms. It thus includes the water of the
atmosphere, water on the Earth’s surface (e.g. oceans, rivers, icesheets and ground water). Oceans, which are interconnected, cover
about 70.8 percent of the surface of the Earth. Pacific Ocean, which is
the largest among the oceans, sprawls over an area of about
16,57,60,000 sq km, an area which is more than the total combined
area of all the continents.
The oceans have an average depth of 3.5 km but their depth varies
from place to place. The deepest known point is the Challenger Deep,
a part of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean, which is 11.776 km
deep.
The water in the oceans totals over 1,300 million cubic km, which is
more than 97 percent of world`s total water. The balance of water
resources are contributed by glaciers, ice and snow, fresh water lakes,
rivers and the underground water.
The ocean floor consists of three main zones, viz., the continental
shelf, the continental slope and the abyss. The continental shelves are,
in fact, the submerged parts of the continents that gentally slope into
the oceans bordering these continents.
The true edge of the continents is, however, the continental slope
which begins from the point where the continental shelf ends.
The abyss contains large sediment covered plains below the oceans.
These plains are often interspersed by lofty volcanic mountains some
of which surface as islands and long broad ridges which are in some
places 2 to 4 kilometres high and up to 4,000 kilometres wide. The
abyss also contains yawning chasms called deep sea trenches.
Continental Shelf (Littoral)) is the sea bed bordering the
continents, which is covered by shallow water up to about 100 fathoms
(600 feet) beyond which is the continental slope.
Continental Slope is the region of the sea extending next to the
continental shelf and having a depth up to 2,000 fathoms.
Continental Drift is a theory or hypothesis that continents have
moved relative to each other across the surface of the earth. The idea
was originally put forth by Antonio Snider-Pellegrini in 1858 and
developed by the German geologist Alfred Wegner from 1910. He
started that there was just one supercontinent, Pangaea which began
to break up about 200 million years ago, since then the continents
have drifted to their present positions.
Isohaline is the line which joins, on a map points of the sea / oceans
having equal salinity.
Ocean Current is the movement of a sizeable body of water as a
current for fairly long distances along a specific path. It is known as
‘drift current’ when caused by the winds and as ‘convection current’
when brought about by variations in temperature. A ‘warm current’ is
the one which flows from a warm to a cold region. The current flowing
from a cold to a warm region is called a ‘cold current’.
Stream refers to any body of running water that flows on or under the
surface of the water.
Swamp is a portion of wet, waterlogged or flooded land.
Gulf Stream refers to the warm ocean current which starts from the
Gulf of Mexico and flows along the eastern coast of North America.
Influenced by the westerly winds, it crosses the Atlantic, moves along
the north-west coast of Europe and helps to keep the British and
Norwegian coastal waters warm and navigable during the winter
months.
Kuro Siwo (Black Current or Japanese Current) is the warm
ocean current which flows up the Asian east coast and is driven by
westerly winds towards North America.
Tide is the periodic rise and fall of sea water. Rise and fall occur
alternately twice a day. The rising of water is called the Flood Tide and
the falling of water is termed as the Ebb Tide.
Spring Tides are caused as a result of the Moon and the Sun pulling
the Earth gravitationally in the same direction. They occur twice a
month around full moon and new moon.
Neap Tides are caused when the Moon and the Sun pull the Earth
gravitationally in opposite directions. They occur twice a month during
first and last quarters of the moon, when Sun, Earth and Moon are at
right angles.
Lagoon is a shallow stretch of Water which is partly or completely
separated from sea by a narrow strip of land.
Reef is a ridge of submerged rock or other hard substance in sea
water. It becomes visible at low rides.
Coral Reef is a ridge of coral and other organic material consolidated
into lime stone lying near the sea level.
Bay is a wide curving indentation in a coastline lying between two
head lands.
Atoll is a circular or horse shoe shaped coral enclosing within it a
lagoon.
Fjord is a shallow stretch of river that may be crossed on foot or in a
vehicle, commonly found in Norway or Sweden.
Strait is a narrow sea passage that links two large areas of sea, for
example the Strait of Gibraltar.
Isthmus is a narrow strip of land connecting two large areas of land
(e.g., Isthmus of Panama joining the North and South American
continents).
Hinterland is the land which lies behind a seaport or seaboard and
supplies the bulk of the exports and in which are distributed the bulk
of the imports of that seaport or seaboard.
Common and Chemical Names of Some Compounds
Common
Name
Chemical Name
Chemical Formulae
Dry Ice
Solid Carbondioxide
CO2
slaked Lime
Calcium Hydroxide
Ca (OH)2
Bleaching
Powder
Calcium Oxychloride
CaOCl2
Nausadar
Ammonium Chloride
NH4Cl
Caustic Soda
Sodium Hydroxide
NaOH
Rock Salt
Sodium Chloride
NaCl
Caustic Potash
Potassium Hydroxide
KOH
Potash Alum
Potassium Aluminium
Sulphate
K2SO4 Al2
(SO4)3.24H2O
Epsom
Magnesium Sulphate
MgSO4.7H2O
Quick Lime
Calcium Oxide
CaO
Plaster of Paris
Calcium Sulphate
(CaSO4) ½ H2O
Gypsum
Calcium Sulphate
(CaSO4) .2H2O
Green Vitriol
Ferrous Sulphate
FeSO4.7H2O
Mohr's Salt
Ammonium Ferrous
Sulphate
FeSO4 (NH4)2
SO4.6H2O
Blue Vitriol
Copper Sulphate
CuSO4.5H2O
White Vitriol
Zinc Sulphate
ZnSO4.7H2O
Marsh Gas
Methane
CH4
Vinegar
Acetic Acid
CH3COOH
Potash Ash
Potassium Carbonate
K2CO3
Hypo
Sodium Thiosulphate
Na2S2O3.5H2O
Baking Powder
Sodium Bicarbonate
NaHCO3
Washing Soda
Sodium Carbonate
Na2CO3.10H2O
Magnesia
Magnesium Oxide
MgO
Chalk (Marble)
Calcium Carbonate
CaCO3
Lunar Caustic
Silver Nitrate
AgNO3
Laughing Gas
Nitrous Oxide
N2O
Chloroform
Tricholoro Methane
CHCl3
Vermelium
Mercuric Sulphide
HgS
Borax
Borax
Na2B4O7.10H2O
Alcohol
Ethyl Alcohol
C2H5OH
Sugar
Sucrose
C12H22O11
Heavy Water
Duterium Oxide
D2O
Globar's Salt
Sodium Sulphate
Na2SO4.10H2O
T.N.T
Tri Nitrotoluene
C6H2CH3 (NO2)3
Calomel
Mercurous Chloride
HgCl
Sand
Silicon Oxide
SiO2
Elements Symbols and Atomic Numbers
Name
Symbol
Atomic Number
Hydrogen
H
1
Helium
He
2
Lithium
Li
3
Beryllium
Be
4
Boron
B
5
Carbon
C
6
Nitrogen
N
7
Oxygen
O
8
Flourine
F
9
Neon
Ne
10
Sodium (Natrium)
Na
11
Magnesium
Mg
12
Aluminium
Al
13
Silicon
Si
14
Phosphorous
P
15
Sulphur
S
16
Chlorine
Cl
17
Argon
Ar
18
Potassium (Kalium)
K
19
Calcium
Ca
20
Titanium
Ti
22
Vanadium
V
23
Chromium
Cr
24
Manganese
Mn
25
Iron (Ferum)
Fe
26
Cobalt
Co
27
Nickel
Ni
28
Copper (Cuprum)
Cu
29
Zinc
Zn
30
Germenium
Ge
32
Bromine
Br
35
Krypton
Kr
36
Zirconium
Zr
40
Silver
Ag
47
Tin (Stannum)
Sn
50
Antimony (Stabnium)
Sb
51
Iodine
I
53
Barium
Ba
56
Gold (Aurum)
Au
79
Mercury (Hydragerm)
Hg
80
Lead (Plumbum)
Pb
82
Bismuth
Bi
83
Radium
Ra
88
Thorium
U
90
Uranium
U
92
Plutonium
Pu
94
Curium
Cm
96
Different Branches of Science
Branch
Concerning Field
Aeronautics
Science of flight of airplanes
Astronomy
Study of heavenly bodies
Agronomy
Science dealing with crop plants
angiology
Deals with the study of blood vascular system
Anthology
Study of flowers
Anthropology
Study of apes and man
Apiculture
Honey industry (Bee Keeping)
Araneology
Study of spiders
Batracology
Study of frogs
Biochemistry
Deals with the study of chemical reactions in relation to life activities
Biotechnology
Deals with the use of micro-organism in commercial processes for producing
fine chemicals such as drugs, vaccines, hormones, etc, on a large scale
Cardiology
Study of heart
Craniology
Study of skulls
Cryptography
Study of secret writing
Cryogenics
Study concerning with the application and uses of very low temperature
Cytology
Study of cells
Dermatology
Study of skin
Ecology
The study of relationship between organisms and environment
Entomology
Study of insects
Etiology
Study of cause of disease
Eugenics
Study of improvement of human race by applying laws of heredity. It is related
with future generations
Evolution
Deals with the study of origin of new from old
Exbiology
Deals with life or possibilities of life beyond the earth
Floriculture
Study of flower yielding plants
Geology
Study of condition and structure of the earth
Genetics
Study of heredity and variations
Gerontology
Study of growing old
Gynaecology
Study of female reproductive organ
Horticulture
Study of garden cultivation
Haematology
Study of blood
Hepatology
Study of liver
. Iconography
Teaching by pictures and models
Immunology
Science which deals with the study of resistance of organisms against infection
Jurisprudence
Science of law
Kalology
Study of human beauty
Lexicography
Compiling of dictionary
Mycology
Study of fungi
Myology
Study of muscles
Nephrology
Study of kidneys
Neurology
Study of nervous system
Numismatics
Study of coins and medals
Obstetrics
Branch of medicine dealing with pregnancy
Oneirology
Study of dreams
Ophthalmology Study of eyes
Ornithology
Study of birds
Osteology
Study of bones
Palaeontology
Study of fossils
Philately
Stamp collecting
Philology
Study of language
Phonetics
Concerning the sound of a spoken language
Physiography
Natural phenomenon
Pedology
Study of soils
Pathology
Study of disease causing organisms
Phycology
Study of algae
Physiology
Science dealing with the study of functions of various parts of organisms
Pisciculture
Study of fish
Pomology
Study of fruits
Seismology
Study of earthquakes
Sericulture
Silk industry (culture of silk moth and pupa)
Serpentology
Study of snakes
Telepathy
Communication between two minds at a distance with the help of emotions
thoughts and feelings
Taxonomy
Study of classification of organisms
Virology
Study of virus
Human Endocrine System
Gland
Hormone
Functions
Hypothalamus
Releasing and inhibiting
hormones and factors
Posterior pituitary hormones
produced here
Posterior
pituitary gland
Receives hormones from
hypothalamus no hormones
synthesised here
Ejection of milk from mammary gland,
stores and secretes the following: contraction of uterus during birth
Oxytocin
Reduction of urine secretion by kidney
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
(vasopressin)
Control of another pituitary hormones
Anterior
pituitary gland
Follicle stimulating hormone
(FSH)
Luteinising hormone (LH)
Prolactin
Thyroid stimulating hormone
(TSH)
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone
(ACTH or corticotrophin)
Growth hormone (GH)
In male, stimulate spermatogenesis
In female, growth of ovarian follicles
In male testosterone secretion
In female secretion of oestrogen and
progesterone, ovulation and maintenance
of corpus luteum
Stimulates milk production and secretion
Synthesis and secretion of thyroid
hormones growth of thyroid glands.
Synthesis and secretion of adrenal cortex
hormones growth of gland
Protein synthesis, growth, especially of
bone of limbs
Parathyroid
gland
Parathormone
Increases blood calcium level
Decreases blood phosphate level
Triiodothyronine (T3)and
thyroxine (T4)
Calcitonin
Regulation of basal metabolic rate, growth
and development
Decreases blood calcium level
Glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
Protein breakdown, glucose/glycogen
synthesis,adaptation to stress, antiinflammatory/allergy effects
Na+ retention in kidney, Na+ and K+
ratios in extracellular and intracellular
fluids, raises blood pressure
Adrenaline (epinephrine)
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
Increase rate and force of heartbeat,
constriction of skin and gut capillaries
Dilation of arterioles of heart and skeletal
muscles, raising blood glucose level
General constriction of small arteries,
raising of blood pressure
Islets of
Langerhans
Insulin (beta cells)
Glucagon (alpha cells)
Decreases blood glucose level, increases
glucose and amino acid uptake and
utilisation by cells
Increases blood glucose level, breakdown
of glucogen to glucose in liver
stomach
Duodenum
Gastrin
Secretin
Cholecystokinin (Pancreozymin)
Secretion of gastric juices
Secretion of pancreatic juice
Inhibits gastric secretion
Emptying of gall bladder and release of
pancreatic juice in to duodenum
Kidney
Ovary
Renin
Oestrogens(17 Beta-oestradiol)
Progesterone
Conversion of angiotensinogen into
angiotensin
Female secondary sex characteristics,
oestrous cycle
Gestation, inhibition of ovulation
Corpus luteum
Progesterone and oestrogen
Progesterone ans oestrogen
Growth and development of uterus
Foetal development
Placenta
Chorionic gonadotrophin
Human placental lactogen
Maintenance of corpus luteum
Stimulates mammary growth
Testis
Testosterone
Male secondary sexual characteristics
Thyroid gland
Adrenal cortex
Adrenal medulla
Medical Inventions and Discoveries
SNo
Name
Medical Inventions
1
Ronald Rose
Malaria Parasite
2
Salk, Jonas E.
Anti-polio Vaccine
3
Simpson and Harrison
Chloroform
4
Waksman
Streptomycin
5
Banting
Insulin ( as a palliative for diabetes)
6
Barnard, Christian
Replacing the human heart
7
Brahmachari, U.N.
Cure of Kala-a-zar fever
8
Davy
Isolation of metals by electricity; studied properties of
chlorine
9
Domagk
Sulpha drugs as bactericides
10
Eijkman
Cause of Beri-Beri
11
Finsen
Discovered curative effect of ultra violet rays; photography
12
Fleming, Alexander
Penicillin (in 1929)
13
Harvey
Circulation of blood
14
Hahnemann
Homoeopathy (founder)
15
Hopkins, Frederick
Gowland
Vitamin D
16
Jenner
Smallpox Vaccination
17
Koch
Tubercle Bacillus
18
Lainnec
Stethoscope
19
Lister, Lord
Antiseptic treatment
20
Pasteur, Louis
Treatment of rabies; cure of hydrophobia
Milestones in Medicine
SNo
Discovery /
Invention
Year
Discoverer /
Inventor
Country
1
Adrenaline
1894
Schafer and
Oliver
Britain
2
Anesthesia,
Local
1885
Koller
Austria
3
Anesthesia,
Spinal
1898
Bier
Germany
4
Anti-toxins
(Science of
Immunity)
1890
Behring and
Kitasato
Germany,
Japan
5
Aspirin
1889
Dreser
Germany
6
Ayurveda
20001000
BC
7
Bacteria
1683
Leeuwenhock
Netherlands
8
Bacteriology
1872
Ferdinand
Cohn
Germany
9
Biochemistry
1648
Jan Baptista
Van Helmont
Belgium
10
Blood Plasma
storage (Blood
bank)
1940
Drew
U.S.A
11
Blood
Transfusion
1625
Jean-Baptiste
Denys
France
12
Cardiac
Pacemaker
1932
A.S Hyman
U.S.A
13
CAT Scanner
1968
Godfrey
Hounsfield
Britain
14
Chemotherapy
14931541
Paracelsus
Switzerland
India
15
Chloroform as
anaesthetic
1847
James
Simpson
Britain
16
Chloromycetin
1947
Burkholder
U.S.A
17
Cholera T.B
germs
1877
Robert Koch
Germany
18
Circulation of
blood
1628
William
Harvey
Britain
19
Cryo-Surgery
1953
Henry Swan
U.S.A
20
Diphtheria
germs
188384
Klebs and
Loffler
Germany
21
ElectroCardiograph
1903
Willem
Einthoven
Netherlands
22
Electroencephalogram
1929
Hand Berger
Germany
23
Embryology
17921896
Kari Ernest
Van Baer
Estonia
24
Endocrinology
1902
Bayliss and
Starling
Britain
25
First Test Tube
Baby
1978
Steptoe and
Edwards
Britain
26
Gene Therapy
on humans
1980
Martin Clive
U.S.A
27
Genes
associated with
cancer
1982
Robert
Weinberg and
others
U.S.A
28
Heart Transplant
1967
Surgery
Christian
Barnard
S. Africa
29
Histology
17711802
Marie Bichat
France
30
Hypodermic
syringe
1853
Alexander
wood
Britain
31
Kidney Machine
1944
Kolf
Netherlands
32
Leprosy Bacillus
1873
Hansen
Norway
33
LSD (Lysergic
acid
diethylamide)
1943
Hoffman
Switzerland
34
Malaria Germs
1880
Laveran
France
35
Morphine
1805
Friderich
Sertumer
Germany
36
Neurology
17581828
Franz Joseph
Gall
Germany
37
Nuclear
magnetic
resonance
imaging
1971
Raymond
Damadian
U.S.A
38
Open Heart
Surgery
1953
Walton Lillehel U.S.A
39
Oral
Contraceptive
Pills
1955
Gregory
Pincus, Rock
U.S.A
40
Penicillin
1928
Alexander
Fleming
Britain
41
Physiology
175766
Albrecht Von
Haller
Switzerland
42
Positron
emission
Tomography
1978
Louis Sokoloff
U.S.A
43
Rabies Vaccine
1860
Louis Pasteur
France
44
RecombinantDNA technology
197273
Paul Berg,
H.W. Boyer,S
Cohen
U.S.A
45
Reserpine
1949
Jal Vakil
India
46
Rh-factor
1940
Karl
Landsteiner
U.S.A
47
Serology
18841915
Paul Ehrlich
Germany
48
Sex hormones
1910
Eugen
Steinach
Australia
49
Small Pox
eradicated
1980
W.H.O
Declaration
UN
50
Stethoscope
1819
Rene Laennec
France
51
Streptomycin
1944
Selman
Waksmann
U.S.A
52
Synthetic
Antigens
1917
Landsteiner
U.S.A
53
Terramycin
1950
Finlay and
Others
U.S.A
54
Thyroxin
1919
Edward
Calvin-Kendall
U.S.A
55
Typhus Vaccine
1909
J. Nicolle
France
56
Vaccination
1796
Edward Jenner Britain
57
Vaccine,
Measles
1963
Enders
U.S.A
58
Vaccine,
Meningitis
1987
Gardon, et al.
Connaught
Lab
U.S.A
59
Vaccine, Polio
1954
Jonas Salk
U.S.A
60
Vaccine, Polioorai
1960
Albert Sabin
U.S.A
61
Vaccine, Rabies
1885
Louis Pasteur
France
62
Vaccine,
Smallpox
1776
Jenner
Britain
63
Virology
1892
Ivanovski and
Bajernick
USSR,
Netherlands
64
Vitamin A
1913
Mc Collum and
U.S.A
M. Davis
65
Vitamin B1
1936
Minot and
Murphy
U.S.A
66
Vitamin C
1919
Froelich Holst
Norway
67
Vitamin D
1925
Mc Collum
U.S.A
68
Vitamin K
1938
Doisy Dam
U.S.A
69
Western
Scientific
Therapy
460370
BC
Hippocrates
Greece
70
Yoga
200100
BC
Patanjali
India
National Laboratories and Research Institutions
SNo
Name
Place
1
Central Building Research Institute
Roorkee, Uttaranchal
2
Central Drug Research Institute
Lucknow, U.P
3
Central Electro-Chemical Research
Institute
Karaikudi, T.N
4
Central Electronics Engineering
research institute
Pilani, Rajasthan
5
Central Food Technological Research
Institute
Mysore, Karnataka
6
Central Fuel Research Institute
Dhanbad, Jharkhand
7
Central Glass and Ceramic Research
Institute
Jadhavpur, W.B
8
Central Institute of Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants
Lucknow, U.P
9
Central Leather Research Institute
Chennai, T.N
10
Central Mechanical Engineering
Research Institute
Durgapur, W.B
11
Central Mining Research Station
Dhanbad, Jharkhand
12
Central Road Research Institute
New Delhi, Delhi
13
Central Salt and Marine Chemical
Research Institute
Bhavnagar, Gujarat
14
Central Scientific Instruments
Organisation
Chandigarh, Chandigarh
15
Indian Institute of Chemical Biology
Kolkatta, W.B
16
Indian Institute of Petroleum
Dehradun, Uttaranchal
17
Industrial Texicology Central Centre
Lucknow, U.P
18
National Aeronautical Laboratory
Bangalore, Karnataka
19
National Botanical Research Institute
Lucknow, U.P
20
National Chemical Laboratory
Pune, Maharashtra
21
National Environment Engineering
Institute
Napery, Maharashtra
22
National Geophysical Research
Institute
Hyderabad, A.P
23
National Institute of Oceanography
Panjim, Goa
24
Bose Research Institute
Kolkata, W.B
25
National Metallurgical Laboratory
Jamshedpur, Jharkhand
26
National Physical Laboratory
New Delhi, Delhi
27
Regional Research Laboratories
Bhubaneshwer, Orissa; Jorhat, Assam; Jammu, J
& K; Hyderabad, A.P
28
Structural Engineering Research
Centre
Roorkee, Uttaranchal; Chennai; T.N;
29
Visvesvarayya Industrial and
Bangalore, Karnataka
Technological Museum
30
High Altitude Research Laboratory
Gulmarg, J and K
31
Indian Cancer Research Centre
Mumbai, Maharashtra
32
Seismic Research Centre
Gaurividanur, Near Bangalore, Karnataka
33
Central Marine Research Station
Chennai, T.N
34
Central
research Laboratory
Chennai, T.N
35
Centre For Cellular and Molecular
Biology
Hyderabad, A.P
36
Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research
New Delhi, Delhi
37
Forest Research Institute
Dehradun, Uttaranchal
38
Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore, Karnataka
39
Indian Institute of Sugar Technology
Kanpur, U.P
40
Indian Space Research Organisation
Bangalore, Karnataka
41
Birbal Sahni Institute of Paleobotany
Lucknow, U.P
42
All India Institute of Hygiene and
Public Health
Kolkata, W.B
43
All India Institute of Medical Science
New Delhi, Delhi
44
All India Malaria Institute
Delhi
45
Institute of Ayurvedic Studies and
Research
Jamnagar, Gujarat
46
National Institute of Communicable
Diseases
New Delhi, Delhi
47
Central Research Institute
Kasauli, H.P
Some Important Alloys
Name
Composition
Use
Brass
Cu(60% to 80%), Zn (40 to 20%)
For making household utencils
Bronze
Cu (75 to 90%), Sn (25 to 10%)
For making coins, idols, utencils
German Silver Cu (60%), Zn (25%), Ni (15%)
For making utencils
Magnelium
Mg (5%), Al (95%)
For making aircraft frame
Rolled Gold
Cu(90%), Ni (10%)
For making cheap ornaments
Monel metal
Cu (70%), Ni (30%)
For making alkali resistant
containers
Bell metals
Cu (80%), Sn (20%)
For making bells
Gun metal
Cu (85%), Zn (10%), Sn(5%)
Used for engineering purpose
Solder
Sn(50-75%), Pb (50-25%)
Soldering of metals
Duralium
Al (95%), Cu (4%), Mg (0.5%), Mn
(0.5%)
In aircraft manufacturing
Steel
Fe (98%), C (2%)
For making nails, screws, bridges
Stainless
Steel
Fe (82%) Cr, Ni (18%)
for making cooking utencils, knives
Some Important Facts of Human Body
Length of alimentary canal
Approximately 8 meters
BMR (Basal metabolic rate)
1600 K.cal/day
Number calls in body
75 trillion
Longest bone
Femur (thigh bone)
Smallest bone
Ear ossicle, stapes
Weight of brain
1400 gms
Blood volume
6.8 litres (in 70 kg body)
Normal B.P
120/80 mm Hg
Number of R.B.C
(a) In male: 4.5-5.0 million/cubic mm
(b) In female: 4.0-4.5 million/cubic mm
Life span of R.B.C
120 days
Normal W.B.C count
5000-10000/cubic mm
Life span of W.B.C
3-4 days
D.L.C (Differential leucocyte count)
(a) Basophils-0.5-1%
(b) Eosinophils-1-3%
(c) Monocytes-3-8%
(d) Neutrophils-40-70%
(e) Lymphocytes-2-25%
Blood platelets count
2,00,000-4,00,000/cubic mm
Haemoglobin
(a) In male: 14-15.6 gm/100 c.c of blood
(b) In female: 11-14 gm/100 c.c of blood
Hb content in body
500-700 gm
Universal blood donor
O Rh-ve
Universal blood recipient
AB
Blood clotting time
2-5 minutes
Average body weight
70 kg
Normal body temperature
98.4.F or 37.C
Breathing rate
16-20 minutes
Dental formula
adult:2123/2123=32
child: 2120/2120=22 milk teeth
Number of cranial nerves
12 pairs
Number of spinal nerves
31 pairs
Largest endocrine gland
Thyroid
Gestation period
9 months (253-266 days)
Normal heart beat
72-75/ minutes
Largest gland
Liver
Largest muscles in the body
Gluteus maximus (Buttock muscle)
Largest smooth muscle
Uterus of pregnant women
Smallest muscles in the body
Stapedius
Largest artery
Abdominal aorta
Largest vein
Inferior venacava
Largest W.B.C
Monocyte
Smallest W.B.C
Lymphocyte
Greatest regeneration power
In liver
Longest nerve
Sciatic
Longest cell
Neuron (nerve cell)
Menstrual cycle
28 days
Menopause age
45-50 years
Minimum regeneration power
In brain cell
Minimum distance for proper vision
25 cm
Type of placenta
Haemochorial (Chorioallantoic)
Pulse rate
72/minute
Volume of semen
2-4 ml/ejaculation
Normal sperm count
200-350 million/ejaculation
ESR (normal Erythrocyte sedimentation rate)
4.10 min/hour
Thinnest skin
Conjunctiva
pH of gastric juice
1.4
pH of urine
6.0
pH of blood
7.35-7.45
Units of Measurement
Ampere
Electric current
Angstrom
Wave-length and also lengths of atomic dimensions
Bar
Atmospheric pressure
Becquerel
Radioactivity
Bel
Intensity of Sound
Calorie
Quantity of Heat
Candela
Luminous intensity
Candle power
Illuminating power of source of light
Celsius (Centigrade)
Temperature
Coulomb
Electric Charge
Decibel
Intensity of sound (1/10th of Bel)
Dyne
Force
Electron-volt
Energy
Erg
Work or Energy
Fahrenheit
Temperature
Farad
Electric Capacitance
Faraday
Electric Charge
Fathom
Depth of water
Foot Candle
Brightness
Gauss
Magnetic Induction
Henry
Inductance
Hertz
Frequency
Horse-power
Power
Joule
Work or Energy
Kelvin
Thermodynamic temperature
Kilogram
Mass
Knot
Speed of Ship and Aircraft
Lambert
Brightness
Light Year
Stellar Distance
Lumen
Luminous flux
Maxwell
Magnetic flux
Metre
Length
Mole
Amount of Substance
Nautical Mile
Distance in Navigation
Newton
Force (metric)
Newton metre
Work
Oersted
Magnetic Intensity
Ohm
Electrical Resistance
Pascal
Stress
Poise
Viscosity
Quintal
Weight (metric)
Radian
Plane Angle
Second
Time
Tesla
Magnetic Flux Density
Volt
Electric Potential
Watt
Power
Weber
Magnetic Flux
Well Known Indian Scientists
Aryabhatta: He lived between 476 and 520 A.D. He was a great mathematician and an
astronomer. His contributions include about the movement of earth around the Sun, determination
of various physical parameters of various celestial bodies, such as diameter of Earth and Moon. He
laid foundations of algebra and pointed out the importance of zero. The first Indian satellite was
named after him.
Bhagavantam: His contribution to radio astronomy and cosmic rays in noteworthy. An associate
of Sir C.V.Raman, Dr.S.Bhagavantam was scientific adviser in the Ministry of Defence and Director
General of Defence Research Development Organisation.
Bhaskaracharya: Born in 1114 A.D., bhaskaracharya was a great Hindu mathematician and
Astronomer. His work 'Sidhanta Siromain' consists of two parts of mathematics and two parts of
astronomy. He had a foresight on the modern theory of conventions.
S.S. Bhatnagar: A great Indian Scientist who lived between 1895 and 1955. He was the first
Director General of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Under his directorship, many
research laboratories were established throughout India.
J.C.Bose: He was an eminent Physicist and Botanist. He founded Bose Research Institute,
Calcutta. He invented Crescograph and lived between 1858 and 1937.
S.N. Bose: He became well-known when he expounded the Bose Einstein theory which deals with
the detection of a group of nuclear particles - named after him 'Boson'. His contribution to Planck's
Law is laudable. He died in 1974.
Dr. S.Chandrasekhar: An Indian-born American, who won Nobel Prize for Physics in 1983. He is
an Astrophysicist. His theory of Stellar Evolution - the birth and death of stars is 35 years old. His
first discovery was laughed at. After three decades, it was recognised and today he is a Nobel
Laureate. According to his theory, the old stars just collapse and disappear in the light of denser
stars of low light popularly called Chandrasekhar Limit.
Charaka: He lived between 80 and 180 A.D. He was a court physician of King Kanishka. His
writings on Hindu Medicine are invaluable
Dhanvantri: He was a great physician during the period of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. His
period was between 375 and 413 A.D.
Hargobind Khorana: He created an artificial gene and deciphered genetic code. He was awarded
Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1968.
Homi J.Bhaba: He largely contributed to the development of Atomic Physics and he was primarily
responsible for setting up of Nuclear reactors in India. He published important papers on Quantum
Theory, Cosmic Rays, Structure of atom, etc. He was the first Chairman of Atomic Energy
Commission. He died in a plane crash in 1966 over Alps.
Joshi: Prof. S.S.Joshi's works on physical and chemical reaction under electrical discharge on
active nitrogen, colloids, hydrogen peroxide are noteworthy
Nagarjuna: A great Buddhist Philosopher and Chemist. He mentioned about crecibles,
sublimation, colouring process etc. His works are still available in China and Tibet. His theory on
extraction of copper and metallic oxides are mention-worthy.
Nag Chowdhury B.D: An eminent Indian Nuclear Physicist known all over the world.
Narlikar: J.V.Narlikar was the co-author of Hoyle-Narlikar theory of continuous creation which
supplies missing links in Einstein's theory of Relativity. Hoyle and Narlikar have shown that the
gravitation is always attractive and there is no gravitational repulsions.
Raja Ramanna: A great nuclear scientist, who was instrumental to stage India's first Nuclear
explosion at Pokharan range in 1974.
Sir C.V. Raman: First Indian Scientist to receive Nobel prize for physics in 1929 for his invention
'Raman Effect'. His study of crystal structure is of unique importance. He founded Raman Research
Institute at Bangalore.
Sir C.P.Roy: Author of 'Hindu Chemistry'. He founded Indian Chemical Society and Bengal
Chemical and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. He has done good work on nitrous acid and its salts. He lived
between 1861- 1944 AD.
Prof. V.Ramachandra Rao: Direction of Indian Scientific Satellite Project (ISSP) at Peenya near
Bangalore
Saha Dr.Maghnad: Late Palit Prof.of Physics, University College of Scientific and Technology,
Calcutta University well-known for his researches in nuclear physics, cosmic rays, spectrum
analysis and other branches of theoretical physics. He lived from 1893 to 1956.
Srinivas Ramanujam: A mathematical wizard, contributed much to number theory, theory of
partitions and theory of continuous fractions. He lived between 1887 to 1920 AD. His birth
centenary was celebrated in 1987.
Satish Dhavan: He was chairman of Indian Space Research Organisation. He was instrumental to
take India into space age by launching Aryabhatta in 1975.
Susruta: A fourth century Hindu Surgeon and Physician. He had written an important book on
medicine and on medical properties of garlic.
Varahamihira: An Indian astronomer and astrologer of 6th Century A.D. He was a mathematician
and philosopher. He was one of the nine gems of Vikramaditya.
Indias Dream Launch PSLV C7
India’s Dream Launch of PSLV-C7
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) added yet another achievement to its list by the
successful launch of the PSLV-C7 from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota on January
10, 2007. The four-stage, 44 metre tall Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C7) which weighs 295
tonnes took off on the dot at 9.23 a.m. from its beachside launch pad and injected four satellites
into precise orbit. This is the PSLV`s ninth consecutive successful launch. Of the four satellites two
satellites belong to India and two are from abroad. The satellites from abroad are LAPAN-TUBSAT,
a joint venture of Indonesia and the Technical University of Berlin and the PEHUENSAT-1 of
Argentina. Dr. B.N.Suresh, Director, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Thiruvananthapuram,
which built PSLV-C7, said, “Four satellites being injected into orbit with the same vehicle is a
unique experience for us”.
This multi-mission launch is going to be a technological challenge for ISRO as it attempts to
deorbit one of the satellites and bring it back to earth on January 22, 2007. The satellite called the
Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE) will stay in orbit for 11 days and thereafter fall into the
Bay of Bengal from where it will be recovered. This challenging job will be headed by Project
Director, Mr. A.Subramoniam. “Right now, I feel that my job has just started. I am looking forward
to January 22, 2007 morning when the SRE will be recovered”, Mr. Subramoniam said.
ISRO`s Cartosat-2 is for mapping purposes and its SRE will be a forerunner to the ISRO mastering
the re-entry, recoverable and re-usable launch vehicle technologies. During its stay in orbit the
two payloads on board the SRE will help conduct experiments in micro-gravity.
The 555 kilogram SRE is coated with thermal tiles to prevent it from burning up when it re-enters
the earth’s atmosphere. After it re-enters the atmosphere, about 5 km above the Bay of Bengal,
three parachutes in the SRE will open up one after another. First, the pilot chute will pull out the
drogue chute, which will deploy, and then the main chute will deploy. The main chute will slow
down the descent of the SRE and it will ultimately splash down into the Bay of Bengal, about 140
km east of Sriharikota island. A floatation system will keep it afloat and dye markers will make it
visible. The Coast Guard will recover it.
The entire process involves a lot of precision as the SRE should be de-orbited in the right direction
and should be given the right incremental velocity. It should re-enter the atmosphere without
burning up. According to the ISRO Chairman, Mr. G. Madhavan Nair, “There are a lot of
technological challenges in bringing back an orbiting satellite because we are doing it for the first
time”.
Besides the technology of bringing to the SRE back to earth in a sequential manner, the PSLV-C7
has also used Dual Launch Adopter (DLA), a device to launch four satellites for the first time. It
also used for the first time a video-imaging system on board to take pictures of the separation of
the first three satellites from the fourth stage of the rocket.
According to Mr. M. Krishnaswamy, Project Director, Cartosat-2, the satellite`s images could be
used in town and rural planning as well as in road and drainage alignment. It could also be used in
studying the passage of communication lines. The PSLV-C7 has been built at a cost of Rs.80 crore.
The Cartosat-2 cost Rs.180 crore and the SRE Rs.30 crore.
After the setback in July 2006 when Geosynchronous Space Launch Vehicle (GSLV) failed, the
success of PSLV is a great morale booster. However, it goes without saying that India has a long
way to go before it finds itself a place in the world space launch market. The Missile Technology
Control Regime embargo on India’s space and military rocket programmes debars an Indian rocket
to launch any American satellite, or one with US components. According to an official dealing with
the issue a joint working group would hold a meeting in Washington in February, 2007 to get this
embargo lifted under the Next Steps in Strategic Partnership negotiations. Moreover, countries like
Russia, the United States, the European Union or Japan are far more developed in space launch
vehicle technology. We compare well with the Chinese Long March CZ4B series when it comes to
hoisting satellites to a Low Earth Orbit to about 2,000 kms. But so far as geosynchronous orbits of
36,000 kms used for communication satellites for beaming.
PSLV Chronology
Launch Vehicle Date of Launch
PSLV-D1
Sept. 20, 1993
PSLV-D2
Oct. 15, 1994
PSLV-D3
Mar. 21, 1996
PSLV-C1
Sept. 29, 1997
PSLV-C2
May 26, 1999
PSLV-C3
Oct. 22, 2001
PSLV-C4
Sept. 12, 2002
PSLV-C5
Oct. 17, 2003
PSLV-C6
May 5, 2005
PSLV-C7
Jan. 10, 2007
Sciences Top Ten
Science’s Top Ten
Showing a clear departure from the year 2005, the world’s leading
scientific research journal Science has dubbed an outstanding work of
mathematics as the most significant breakthrough of the year 2006. It is
worth mentioning that a work in the field of organic evolution had been
accorded the same pride of place in the year 2005 for which the journal
had invited criticism from several corners. Taking cognizance of that fact,
the Editorial has aptly noted, “Our readers can relax this year; Religion
and politics are off the table, and n-dimensional geometry is on instead”.
Solution of A Century-old Mathematical Riddle
The work of Russia’s Publicity shy mathematician Grigori Perelman has
topped the Science’s Top Ten Breakthroughs of the Year 2006’. As the
Editorial says, “To mathematicians, Grigori Perelman’s proof of the
Poincare Conjecture qualifies at least as the Breakthrough of the Decade.
But it has taken them a good part of that decade to convince themselves
that it was for real”.
Poincare Conjecture, which deals with abstract shapes in threedimensional space, has finally been solved. The Poincare Conjecture is
part of a branch of mathematics called topology, informally known as
‘rubber sheet geometry’ because it involves surfaces that can undergo
arbitrary amounts of stretching. Proposed in 1904 by Henri Poincare, the
conjecture describes a test for showing that a space is equivalent to a
‘hypersphere’, the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional ball.
In 2002, Russian mathematician Grigori Perelman, posted on the Interner
the first of three papers that outlined a proof of Poincare`s conjecture as
part of an even more ambitious result. Though many lacunae still existed,
it appeared that Perelman had indeed solved one of the most difficult
problems in mathematics. The year 2006 saw three teams filling in the
gaps of Perelman’s proof.
Tracking the Trail Of Neanderthal-Homo Sapien Divergence
The two groups that published their results in 2006 concluded that
Neanderthals diverged from our own ancestors at least 4,50,000 years
ago- approximately the time suggested by fossil and mitochondrial DNA
studies.
While one group decoded 65,000 Neanderthal bases the other decoded a
million bases. Together these two groups showed that researchers could
now find sequence changes between modern and ancient humans. The
works provide us a very rough draft of the complete Neanderthal genome
sequence. This discovery coincided with the 150th anniversary of the
discovery of the Neanderthal type specimen celebrated in 2006.
Depletion of Great Ice Sheets
While climate change and its effects on ice sheets is now accepted, the
observation by glaciologists that the two great ice sheets covering
Greenland and Antarctica are melting and losing ice to the oceans proved
beyond doubt the effect of climate change. The scientists also showed
that the ice sheets are being lost at an accelerating pace.
The observation has in turn brought out the effect of how the sensitive ice
sheets react to ‘an as-yet modest warming of air and ocean water”. Both
Greenland and Antarctica have been losing ice over the past 5 to 10 years
with Greenland shedding at least 100 gigatons each year and Antarctica in
the range of tens of gigatons per year or more.
Evolutionary Feat Of a Fossil Fuel Discovery
If glaciologists showed the effect of melting ice sheets on low lying coastal
areas, paleontologists dug out evidence of a fossil fish that long ago took
a deep breath and made some tentative but ultimately far-reaching steps
onto land. “The 375-million-year-old specimen with its sturdy jointed fins
fills and evolutionary gap and provides a glimpse of the features that
helped later creatures conquer the continents”, Science reports. The fish
have been named Tiktaalik roseae for ‘large freshwater fish’ in the
Inuktitut language and a donor who helped fund the expedition,
respectively.
“All limbed vertebrates, known as tetrapods, evolved from lobe-finned
fishes some 370 million to 360 million years ago. The new species is the
most tetrapod-like fish yet discovered”.
The First Rudimentary Invisibility Cloak
Physicists also share their own claim for fame in 2006 by cobbling
together the first ‘rudimentary invisibility cloak’ – Scientists developed
this year the first rudimentary device for shielding objects from view. The
device guides incoming microwaves in such a way that they produce
neither a reflection nor a shadow. Although far from perfect – the ring
shaped cloak is invisible only when viewed in microwaves of a certain
wavelength travelling parallel to the plane of the ring – the device could
usher in a potentially revolution approach to manipulating electromagnetic
waves.
The First Ray Of Hope For AMD Patients
The battle against Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD), which is one
of the leading causes of blindness in people, appears to be won. The
results of two clinical trials showed that treatment with the drug
ranibizumab improves the vision of roughly one-third of patients with the
more serious wet form of AMD and stabilizes the condition of most of the
others. Other approved treatments can only slow the progression of AMD.
Vision loss in the wet form of AMD is caused by the growth and leakage of
abnormal blood vessels in the macula, the central region of the retina.
The drug ranibizumab targets the protein that stimulates the vessel
growth.
Detecting Genetic Changes To Develop New Species
How does speciation start? Several genetic changes make a group of
individuals become a separate species by giving them the extra
advantage to survive in a new environment. And understanding these
have come, thanks to genomics, in helping scientists understand one of
the most fundamental questions of biology on biodiversity.
From Florida beach mice to cactus finches, the effect of a single gene to
help them become, a separate species has been brought out.
Genes can help drive speciation in other ways as well. Researchers have
long ago realized that as two incipient species diverge, “the sequences of
two or more interacting genes can evolve along different paths until the
proteins they encode no longer work together in any crossbred offspring”.
Scientists now have been able to pinpoint the first such pair of
incompatible genes in Drosophila melanogaster and a sister species, D.
simulan.
“In June, evolutionary biologists detailed the most convincing case yet of
a species that arose through hybridization. They bred two species of
passion vine butterflies and got the red and yellow stripe pattern of a
third species”.
New Insight into Cellular Structure
Biologists have for the first time managed to get a clearer view of the fine
structure of cells and proteins. This was possible as they used a
microscopy technique that sidestepped a fundamental limit of optics –
inability to study features smaller than half the wavelength of the light
used to illuminate an object – about 200 nanometres for visible light.
Researchers in Germany using a technique known as Stimulated Emission
Depletion (STED) and another simpler technique known as photoactivated
localization microscopy (PALM) have used fluorescent dye/tag effectively
with some light manipulations to study biological specimens that was not
possible using conventional optical techniques.
Verification of Brain’s Memory Retention Capability
How does the brain record new memories? A process called Long Term
Potentiation (LTP) that strengthens connections between neurons was
long suspected by neurologists to be the answer but there was no way of
proving it.
Several findings reported in 2006 strongly bolstered the case. “LTP is
based on the fact that synaptic connections between neurons in the
hippocampus, a brain region tied to memory, are bolstered under certain
conditions”.
Scientists discovered LTP is the early 1970s, when experiments with
rabbits showed that a brief barrage of electrical zaps could holster
synaptic connections between neurons in the hippocampus, a brain region
tied to memory.
Observing LTP in the hippocampus when an animal learns something was
essential to prove LTP. In January, Spanish scientists reported such an
observation in mice conditioned to blink upon hearing a tone. In August,
another research team described LTP in the hippocampus of rats that had
learned to avoid an area where they had previously received a shock.
Discovery of A New RNA Type
After DNA, it has been the turn of small RNA molecules to hog the
limelight. The number of small RNA being discovered seems unending
with Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) joining the elite club. piRNAs made
their grand entrance last summer.
piRNAs are abundant in the rests of several animals, including humans
and are distinctly different from their small RNA cousins. They appear to
regulate the development and maintenance of sperm cells in many
species. But much is unknown about them.
Milestones in Space Exploration
1957
Sputnik-I and Sputnik-II of Russia, first two earth-orbiting satellites;
USA's Vanguard TV3 fails.
1959 Russia launches Luna-I, first lunar fly-by and Luna-II, first lunar impact.
1961
Russia's first manned Earth orbiter Vostok-I carrying Russian cosmonaut
Yuri Gagarin.
1962 Mariner-II, first Venus fly-by of USA.
1964 Mariner-IV, first Mars fly-by of USA.
1965 Russia's Venera-III, first spacecraft to impact another planet.
1966
Russia's Luna-IX, first spacecraft to land on the moon and Luna-X, first
man-made satellite of the moon.
1967
Russia's Venera-IV, first spacecraft to transmit data from Venus's
atmosphere.
1968 USA's Apollo-VIII, first manned lunar orbiter.
USA's Apollo-X, manned lunar orbiter and Apollo-XL first manned lunar
1969 landing; Neil .Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin become the first cosmonauts to
land on moon.
USA's ApolIo-XIII, spacecraft returns after malfunctioning; Russia's
1970 Venera-Vll, first Venus lander and Luna- XVII (Lunokhod-I), first lunar
rover.
1971
Russia's Mars-II, first Mars orbiter and first mission to impact Mars;.MarsIII, first Mars lander.
1972 USA's Pioneer -X first Jupiter fly-by
1973
USA's Pioneer-XI, first Saturn fly-by; Mariner-X uses the gravitational pull
of Venus to reach Mercury.
1975
Russia's Venera-IX, first Venus orbiter and USA's Viking-I, Mars orbiter
and lander.
1976 USA's Helios-II reaches closest to Sun.
1977
Voyager-II of USA flies by Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. 1981 ;
USA's space shuttle STS-1,' first space shuttle flight.
1985 Japan's Sakigakc, Comet Bailey fly-by.
1989
USA's Galileo, first Jupiter orbiter and first atmospheric probe of the
planet.
1990
USA's Bubble Space Telescope Observatory in space 600 km above Earth's
surface.
1995 ESA's SOHO (Solar Heliospheric Observatory), Solar Obse
1996
USA's NEAR, first near-Earth asteroid rendezvous mission; Mars
Pathfinder, first Mars rover.
2001 USA's Genesis, first mission to collect solar wind sample.
2005 USA's MESSENGER, Mercury orbiter, expected to return in 2011.
2006 USA's New Horizons and Pluto - Kupito Belt Probe; Stereo Solar orbiter.
2007
USA's Phoenix, Mars polar lander; Japan's Selene, lunar orbiter and USAs
Dawn, Asteroids orbiter
Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS)
Recent studies have shown that about 85 per cent of computer users suffer from computer vision syndrome
Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS) is a complex eye and vision-related problem associated with computer use.
Recent studies have shown that about 85 per cent of computer users suffer from this problem, possibly making
it the silent epidemic of the 21st century.
Hence it is important to know a few essential things about CVS.
Symptoms
The primary symptoms are eyestrain, blurred vision, dry and irritated eyes, tired eyes, and headaches. Neck
and backaches can also be related to the way we use our eyes at the computer.
Causes
There are several reasons, but the most important reason is that the blink rate (16 / min) is reduced to about
1/3 the normal rate. This leads to irritation, dryness, excessive tearing, burning, itching and redness.
Contact lens wearers also often experience problems with their contact lenses. In response, reflex tearing
sometimes occurs and floods the eyes with tears.
Precautions
Use artificial tears to rewet and lubricate your eyes. Lower the computer screen so that the centre of the
screen is four to eight inches below your eyes. If seated in a draft or near an air vent, try to eliminate the flow
of air past your eyes.
Low humidity or fumes aggravate a dry eye condition, so fix these if possible. Blink whenever you begin to
sense eye discomfort; close eyelids and roll eyes frequently.
While working on computers, use glasses with anti-reflection coating. These are advised for those wearing lens
as well. For those with presbyopia (glasses for reading after 40 years), the best solution is a lens that is
specifically designed for this purpose.
Because the eyes lead the body, the body will assume whatever position is required to enable your eyes to see
comfortably. The most optimum viewing distance is considered to be 20-28 inches.
Care for eyes
Care of a person with CVS often requires an expanded case history, testing of the eyes or vision, or treatment
since it involves taking into consideration many aspects.
Perfect computer display
Flat panel (LCD) are better than cathode ray tube (CRT) displays since they do not flicker and the contrast is
typically higher. Optimal contrast and visibility are attained with black characters on a white background.
The size of the text should be three times the size of the smallest text you can read. Adjust refresh rate
(flicker) as high as possible, preferably 85 hertz or higher. For colour monitors, smaller dot pitches (less than
0.28 mm) are desirable.
Adjust the screen contrast so that the characters are clear. Reflections from your computer screen reduce the
contrast and make it difficult to see your work. If possible, remove the offending source of light - turn off the
source, draw blinds and :
Know the best lighting
Bright lights or other bright objects in your peripheral vision are uncomfortable and can contribute to eye and
musculoskeletal symptoms.
 Try the following measures.
Turn off the light that is bothering you.
 If window light is causing discomfort, draw blinds.
Alter your workstation position so that bright overhead lights or bright windows are not in your field of
vision. If a desk lamp is causing discomfort, try turning if off and determine whether you can still
adequately see your work.
 Use a shield or partition to block bright lights.


Blurring of vision
Intermittent blurring is caused by an inability of the accommodative mechanism to maintain a steady focus on
near objects.
This occurs when, after extended near work, the muscles remain fixed or somewhat locked in the near
contracted position, effectively making the eye myopic, taking a few seconds to focus on objects. Sometimes
this can last for several hours.
This can even affect driving and can be treated with spectacles and exercises. Eyelids flutter or twitch because
the muscle surrounding the eye is fatigued. Take periodic breaks, eliminate glares and consider an eye
examination.
There is no way that screen and the keyboard can be optimally located with laptops and notebooks and
extended work is not recommended on these.
The author is cornea and refractive surgeon, Narayana Netralaya, Bangalore.
Worlds Prominent Scientists
Ryle, Sir Martin: U.K. (1974) Nobal Prize winner in Physics
for the development of "aperture synthesis" technique
designed to identify stellar objects through radio signals.
Sarabhai, Dr. Vikram A: Former Chairman of India's Atomic
Energy Commission and the Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO) died on December 30, 1971. Dr. Sarabhai
was an eminent physicist mainly interested in the astrophysical implications of Cosmic Ray Time Variations
Sanger, Dr. Frederick (b.1918): First Scientist to receive
two Nobel Prizes for Chemistry in 1958 (composition of the
insulin molecule) and in 1980 (molecular structures for nucleic
acids)
Sen, P.K. (Dr.): is the Indian surgeon who performed Asia's
first heart transplant operation in Mumbai.
Simpson, Sir James Young (1811 - 1870): British physicist
to introduce chloroform as an anaesthetic in 1847
Soddy, Frederick (1877 - 1956): British radio chemist
pioneer to research in the atomic disintegration, discovered
"isotopes"; for which he received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry
in 1921.
Solvay, Earnest (1838 - 1922): Belgian chemist devised a
process for manufacture of sodium carbonate
Sutherland, Dr. Earl W: Recipient of the Nobel Prize for
Medicine, 1971, credited with the discovery, "that the
hormones in the human body produce another substance
known as cyclic A.M.P., can influence its disease-resisting
capacity in the body".
Teller, Edward (Dr.): U.S. nuclear scientist developed the
hydrogen bomb.
Thomson, Sir J.J. (1856 - 1940): British physicist
discovered the electron which inaugurated the electrical theory
of the atom.
Tsiolkovsky (1857 - 1940): Russian pioneer who developed
the basic theory of rocketry.
Verne, jules (1828 - 1905): French science-fiction writer;
author of the book "From the Earth to the Moon". The book
carried a more or less accurate prediction of the launching and
flight of Apollo-8.
Volta, A. (1745 - 1827): Italian physicist and pioneer of
electrical science; invented voltaic cell, the electrophorus and
electroscope.
Voronoff, S: Russian scientist known for grafting healthy
animal glands, into the human body.
Watson and Crick:Known for DNA double helix.
Watson-Watt, Sir Robert:British physicist. He developed
radar.
Watt, James (1736 - 1819):Scottish engineer who invented
steam engine
Yukawa, Dr. H: (born 1907) Predicted a new particle meson
which holds the protons and neutrons of the atomic nucleus,
first Japanese to win the Nobel Prize in Physics (1949).
Alvares, Luis W: An American Won the Nobel Prize for
elementary physics in 1960 when he discovered a new
resonance particle - a discovery that shattered the then
prevailing notions as to how matter was built.
Anfinsen, Dr. Christian B: U.S.A. 's one of the three cowinners of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1972.
Archimedes: Greek mathematician who lived about 250 B.C.
discovery of the Archimedes' principle Archimedean Screw, a
cylindrical device for raising water
Arrow, Kenneth, J: Harvard University, U.S.A. is co-winner
of the Nobel Prize for Economics, 1972 with Sir John Richard
Hicks of Oxford University. The two men are known for their
pioneering contributions to general economic equilibrium and
welfare theories.
Aryabhatta: (476 - 520 A.D.) after whom India's first
scientific satellite has been named, was a great Indian
astronomer and mathematician. Among his important
contributions are the recognition of the importance of the
movement of the earth round the Sun, determination of the
physical parameters of various celestial bodies, such as
diameter of the earth and the moon. He laid the foundations
of algebra and was responsible for pointing out importance of
"zero".
Avogadro, Amedeo: Italian physicist; founder of Avogadro's
hypothesis. He also defined a molecule. He lived between
1776 and 1856.
Bardeen, Prof. John: U.S.A.'s co-winner of the Nobel Prize
for Physics, 1972 (with Prof. Leon N.Cooper and Prof. John
Robert Schrieffer) for researches into the "theory of super-
conductivity" called BCS theory.
Barnard, Christian South African surgeon who did the first
heart transplant operation on Louis Washkansky in 1967.
Beadle, Dr. G: American scientist awarded Nobel Prize for
medicine in 1958 for the actual basis of heredity.
Becquerel, Henri: French physicist discovered in 1896 of
Becquerel rays, the first indications of radio-activity; later
named gamma rays. He shared Nobel Prize for Physics with
the Curies in 1903. He lived between 1852 and 1908.
Berzelius, J.J: Swedish Chemist, known for chemical
shorthand symbols and atomic weights. He lived between
1779 and 1848
Bessemer, Sir Henry: English engineer invented the process
for the manufacture of steel. He lived between 1813 and
1898.
Bhabha, Dr. H.J: Indian scientist. He published important
papers on Cosmic Rays and Quantum Theory. He was
professor at the Indian Science Institute, Bangalore;
Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission; Director, Tata Institute
of Fundamental Research; President, Indian Science Congress
in 1951 and presided at the Atoms for Peace Conference held
at Geneva in 1956. He had many significant researches in
structure of atom and contributed largely to the setting up of
atomic reactors at Trombay (Mumbai).
Bohr, Neils: (born 1885) Danish Physicist awarded Nobel
Prize for Physics in 1922. He extended the theory of atomic
structure of devising an atomic model in 1913
Boyle, Robert: Irish natural philosopher; one of the founders
of modern chemistry and Boyle's law. He lived between 1627
and 1691.
Bragg. Sir William: British physicist researched on the
behaviour of crystals with regard to X-rays incident upon
them. He lived between 1862 and 1942.
Cavendish, Henry: English physicist and chemist; discovered
properties of hydrogen in 1766. He lived between 1731 and
1810
Chadwick, Sir James: British physicist discovered the
particle in an atomic nucleus known as the neutron, because it
has no electric charge. He lived between 1891 and 1974.
Charles, Jacques Alexander Cesar: A French scientist first
to make a balloon ascension with hydrogen. He has worked on
the effect of temperature on the volume of gases. He lived
between 1746 and 1823.
Clark Maxwell, James: British physicist worked wireless
telegraphy and telephony. His principal works include :
Perception of Colour, Colour Blindness, Theory of Heat,
Electricity and Magnetism, Matter and Motion. He lived
between 1831 and 1879.
Claude, Albert: A Biologist shared the 1974 Nobel Prize in
Medicine. His field of research relates to causes and treatment
of cancer.
Columbus, Christopher: Italian navigator discovered West
Indies Islands, Cuba, Bahamas, South America in 1498. He
lived between 1446 to 1506.
Cooper, Leon N: Of U.S.A. one of the three co-winners of the
Nobel prize in Physics, 1972 for theory of superconductivity
Copernicus: Astronomer of Poland who discovered the "Solar
System". He lived between 1413 and 1543.
Curie, Madame Marie: Polish physicist and chemist;
discovered radium awarded Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1911
and Prize in physics in 1903, lived between 1867 and 1934.
Dalton, John: British scientist, founder of the Atomic Theory
and law of Multiple Proportions. He lived between 1766 and
1844.
Darwin, Charles: British scientist who discovered the
principle of natural selection. He lived between 1809 and
1882.
Davy, Sir Humphrey: British chemist. First to apply electric
current for the isolation of metals. He lived between 1771 and
1829.
Debreu, Gerard: 1983 Nobel memorial prize in economics, is
known for his research on market equilibrium incorporated
"new analytical methods into economic theory".
Delbrueck, Dr. Max: American doctor, was one of the three
American co-winners of the Nobel Prize for Medicine, 1969 for
discoveries in molecular genetics
Edelman, Dr. Gerald Maurice: Of U.S.A. is co-winner of the
Nobel Prize for Medicine, 1972 found out "the chemical
structure of blood-proteins or antibodies which shield the
human body against infection".
Edison, Thomas Alva: American inventor of phonograph, the
incandescent lamp, a new type of storage battery, an early
form of cinematography etc. He lived between 1847 and 1931.
Einstein, Prof. Albert: German-Swiss, famous scientist
known for his theory of relativity. He lived between 1879 and
1955.
Faraday, Michael: English scientist; prominent in the field of
electro-magnetism; discovered the laws of electrolysis. He
lived between 1791 and 1867
Fleming, Sir John Ambrose: British physicist and engineer
pioneer in the development of the telephone, electric light and
radio. He lived between 1849 and 1945.
Fraunhofer: German physicist researched on 'Light' while
performing spectrum-analysis of Sunlight; discovered
'Fraunhofer Lines'.
Freud, Sigmund: Psycho-analysist. Works: The
Interpretation of Dreams; The Psychopathology of Every-day
Life; The Ego and the Id; Civilization and Its Discontents. He
lived between 1856 and 1939
Gabor, Dr Dennis: 1971 Nobel Prize award for Physics for his
"invention in development of the holographic method" - three
dimensional photography.
Galileo: Italian scientist viewed that all falling bodies, great or
small, descend with equal velocity, invented telescope and
became the first man to see the satellites of Jupiter. He lived
between 1564 and 1642.
Gell-Mann, Prof. Murray: Recipient of the 1969 Nobel Prize
in Physics, for his "classification of elementary particles and
their interactions".
Goddard, Robert H: An American pioneer of space research
who mentioned the possibility of shooting a rocket to the
moon in a paper entitled "A Method of Reaching Extreme
Altitudes" published by him in 1919.
Graham, Thomas: Scottish chemist called the "father of
colloidal chemistry". He worked on diffusion of substances in
solution. He lived between 1805 and 1914.
Hahn, Otto: German pioneer of nuclear research, won the
Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1944, proved in 1938 that atomic
fission can be achieved by bombarding uranium with neutrons.
Hall, Charles Martin: American chemist discovered the
modern method of extraction of aluminium by electrolysis of
bauxite in 1886. He lived between 1863 and 1914.
Harvey, William: English physician who discovered the
circulation of blood. He lived between 1578 and 1675
Herzberg, Dr.Gebard: The 1971 Nobel Prize winner in
Chemistry, for his researches in atomic and molecular
structures, particularly free radicals.
Holley, Robert: Nobel Prize winner for Medicine, 1968, the
genetic code and its function in building protein led to the
discovery of "the complete structure of a transfer of RNA
molecule"
Hopkins, Sir Frederick Gowland: English biochemist worked
on proteins and vitamins. He received the Nobel Prize in
medicine in 1929 for the discovery of Vitamin D.
Hoyle, Fred: A British scientist and science-fiction writer who
won the £ 1,000 Kalinga Prize in 1968.
Jenner, Edward: English physician discovered the
vaccination system of alleviating small pox. He lived between
1749 and 1823.
Josephson Dr. Brian: British scientist who co-shared the
1973 Nobel Prize for physics for his "theoretical predictions of
the properties of a super-current through a tunnel barrier,
known as Josephson effects".
Joule, James Prescott: English physicist who first
demonstrated the mechanical energy can be converted into
heat. He lived between 1874 and 1937.
Kepler, Johannes: German astronomer discovered 3 laws of
planetary motion (1) The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with
the Sun at one of the foci; (2) the Radius vector of each
planet describes equal areas in equal times; (3) The squares
of the periods of the planets are proportional to the cubes of
their mean distances from the Sun. He lived between 1571
and 1630.
Khorana, Hargobind: Who shared with two other the 1968
Nobel Prize for Medicine is an Indian by birth and an American
by domicile. He deciphered the genetic code and later created
an artificial gene.
Krishnan, Dr. K.S: (born 1898) collaborated with Sir
C.V.Raman in the discovery of "Raman Effect". President,
Indian Science Congress, 1949, delegate to several
international scientific conferences; Director, National Physical
Laboratory, New Delhi.
Lavoisier A.L: French chemist; established "law of
Indestructibility of Matter, Composition of Water and Air". He
lived between 1743 and 1794.
Lister, Joseph: British surgeon who used antiseptic
treatment for wounds; introduced antiseptic surgery. He lived
between 1827 and 1912.
Lodge, Sir Oliver Joseph: British physicist, known for his
researches on radiation, and the relation between matter and
ether. He lived between 1851 and 1940.
Lysenko: Soviet geneticist declared the "Mendelian theory
obsolete and erroneous" in 1948.
Marconi: Italian scientist pioneer in wireless telegraphy and
radio. He lived between 1873 and 1937.
McClintock, Barbara: 1983 Nobel Prize winner in Medicine
for her discovery of mobile genetic.
Max Planck: German theoretical physicist who formulated the
quantum theory. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1918.
Mendel, Johann Gregory: Austrian monk and naturalist
discovered certain principles of inheritance of heredity. He
lived between 1822 and 1884.
Mendeleef, D.I: Russian chemist, founder of periodic law and
the development of petroleum and other industries in Russia.
He lived between 1834 and 1901.
Meyer, Victor: Discovered a method to determine the
molecular weights of volatile substances. He lived between
1848 and 1897.
Morley, Edward William: American chemist and physicist
known for his work in determining the composition of water by
weight. He lived in 1818 and 1923.
Moseley, Henry G: British physicist worked on atomic
structure, and in 1913, devised the series of atomic numbers.
He lived between 1887 and 1915.
Newton, Sir Isaac: British natural philosopher discovered
"binomial theorem, the differential and integral calculus and
the universal law of gravitation". He lived between 1642 and
1727.
Nirenberg, Dr. Marshall: U.S. molecular biologist 1968
Nobel Prize winner for Medicine with Dr. Robert Holley and Dr.
Hargobind Khorana.
Ohm, George Simon: Physicist and mathematician;
discovered the law known as Ohm's Law. He lived between
1787 and 1854.
Onsager, Lars: U.S. Professor who became a Nobel laureate
of 1968 for Chemistry the discovery of "the reciprocal relations
bearing his name which are fundamental for the thermodynamics of irreversible processes".
Paraceisus: Swiss mystic and chemist, he was the first to
employ laudanum and antimony in Pharmacy. He lived
between 1493 and 1541.
Pasteur, Louis: French chemist discovered the causes of
fermentation in alcohol and milk and founded the Pasteur
Institute in 1888. He lived between 1822 and 1895.
Pauling, Linus: American bio-chemist applied the quantum
theory to chemistry received Nobel Prize (1954) for his
contribution to the electrochemical theory of valency.
Porter, Dr. Rodney Robert: Biochemist known for his
discoveries relating to the chemical structure of antibodies.
Prelog, Vladimir: Yugoslavian stereo-chemistry-research of
organic molecules and reactions. He received (1975) Nobel
Prize in Chemistry.
Priestley, Joseph: British Chemist; discovered oxygen and
methods of collecting gases. He lived between 1733 and 1804.
Rao, Prof. U.Ramachandra: Is the Director of Indian
Scientific Satellite Project (ISSP) at Peenya near Bangalore.
Rainwater, James: U.S.A. (1975) Nobel Prize winner in
Physics for the development of the theory that atomic nucleus
is not always spherical bet can also be egg-shaped which has
no immediate practical meaning but is extremely essential to
scientists
Richards, T.W: He worked for the accurate determination of
atomic weights and was awarded Nobel Prize in 1916.
Roger Bacon: Inventor of Gun Powder and founder of
experimental science. He lived between 1214 and 1294.
Rontgen, W.Konrad: German physicist, discovered X-rays,
or Rontgen rays for which he was awarded the first Nobel
Prize for Physics in 1901. He lived between 1845 and 1923.
Ross, Ronald: British physician discovered the cause of
Malaria; awarded Nobel Prize for medicine in 1902. He lived
between 1857 and 1932.
Rutherford, Daniel: Scottish scientist discovered nitrogen.
He lived between 1749 and 1819.
Rutherford, Lord: Won a Nobel Prize for his work on
structure of atom and radio-activity. He lived between 1871
and 1937.
Subjects
Acoustics
Science or study of sound
Anatomy
Internal structure of living organism
Anthropology
Mental and Physical states of mankind
Archaeology
Prehistoric remains
Astrology
Predicting future of human beings
Astronautics
The science of space travel
Astronomy
Study of heavenly bodies
Astrophysics
A branch of astronomy dealing with physical nature of heavenly bodies
Bacteriology
Dealing with bacteria
Biology
Study of living bodies
Bionics
Investigation of sensory perception of birds
Botany
Plant life
Ceramics
Pottery
Chemistry
Properties and composition of various elements
Chemotherapy Treatment of a Disease by certain chemical compounds
Chronology
Computing of period of time and assignment of dates with events
Conchology
Study of shells
Cosmology
The Science of universe as a whole
Cryogenics
Production and application of very low temperature
Cryptography
Study of Cell formation
Ecology
Study of Relations of animals and plants to their environment
Economics
Study of production, consumption and distribution of wealth
Entomology
Study of Insects
Epidemiology
Study of Epidemics
Epigraphy
Study of Inscriptions
Ethics
Psychological Study of moral conduct and duty
Ethnology
Study of mental and physical differences of mankind
Etymology
Study of the origin and history of words
Exobiology
Science dealing with life existing beyond Earth
Genetics
Science of Heredity
Geology
Study of condition and structure of the Earth
Gerentology
Science of old age
Haematology
Science dealing with the formation, composition, functions and diseases of the
blood
Horticulture
Garden cultivation
Hydrography
Treatment of diseases with water
Hydrophonics
Culture of plants without soil, only in solutions
Hydroponics
Culture of plants without soil
Hydrostatics
The relation of pressure to equilibrium of fluids
Hyetology
Study of rainfall
Hygiene
Study of Health
Jurisprudence
The Science of knowledge of law
Iconography
Teaching by pictures and models
Lexicography
Compiling of dictionary
Mammography A technique of quicker diagnosis of breast cancer among women
Metallurgy
Study of Science and Technology of metals
Meteorology
Atmospheric phenomena
Morphology
Position, Structure and form of different plants and animals
Morphotogeny
Origin and growth of any living organism
Mycology
The study of fungi
Numismatics
Study of coins
Odontography
Study of teeth
Optics
Nature and properties of light
Ornithology
Study of birds
Osteology
The study of bones
Palaeontology
Study of fossils
Pathology
Nature, causes and remedies of diseases
Pedagogy
Education
Phrenology
Skull and brain
Philately
Stamp collection
Philology
Language
Phonetics
Study of the sounds of spoken language
Physics
Material bodies
Physiology
Structure and function of animal and plant life
Physiograpy
Study of natural geography
Pomology
Fruits
Psychology
Study of mind
Radiology
Radiant energy
Seismology
Science of earthquakes
Sericulture
Silkworm rearing
Sociology
Social problems and human progress
Telepathy
Communication of two minds at a distance with the help of thought, feelings and
emotions
Therapeutics
Healing of diseases and laws of health
Tribology
The study of inter-acting surfaces in relatives motion
Virology
Study of Viruses
Zoology
Animal life
Food Facts
Food Facts
Several studies have suggested that the best benefits of vitamins
and minerals come when they’re taken from food rather than at a
supplement. Here is how you can get your daily dose of vitamins
and minerals:
Vitamin
Food Sources
Vitamin A
Meat, dairy products
Beta Carotene
Green leafy vegetables; yellow and orange
fruit and vegetables (carrot,
papaya, pumpkin)
B1
Cereal Vegetables
B2
Meat, beans, peanuts, leafy greens
B3
Cereals
B6
Meat, pulses, wheat
B12
Liver, meat, eggs
Folic Acid
Fermented foods containing yeast
(bread, idly, etc); fruit; leafy vegetables
Pantothenic acid
Liver, yeast, egg yolk, milk, soya
Biotin
Egg, peanuts, cheese, chicken
Vitamin C
Citrus fruit, potatoes, green vegetables
Vitamin D
Sunlight
Vitamin E
Almonds, vegetable oils, cereals, leafy greens
Minerals
Good Sources
Calcium
Dairy products, bony fish, leafy greens
Phosphorus
Supplied by normal eating
Iodine
Iodised salt
Magnesium
Fruits, vegetables, pulses and whole grains
Zinc
Seeds, e.g. til (sesame)
Potassium
Cereals, pulses and legumes, leafy greens
Copper, Selenium
Most people get these enough from their diet
and Chromium