L to J Terms Handbook
Rhetoric: the art of effective communication, especially persuasive discourse; focuses on
interrelationship of invention, arrangement, and style to create appropriate discourse. Use of
language to persuade or the art of persuasion
Style: the sum of choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and
other literary devices; evaluation allows some authors’ style to be easily recognized due to
idiosyncrasies.
Rhetorical strategies: specific choices made by a writer, designed to produce specific effects;
range from diction to imagery to syntax to structure to organization; A.P. Grader’s Note: DO
NOT MISTAKE rhetorical strategies for rhetorical effects. UNDERSTAND that all writers make
choices to produce effects.
Diction: a major rhetorical strategy in which a writer chooses words carefully for distinct
effects; A.P. Grader’s Note: NEVER suggest that a writer uses “a lot of diction” or “very good
diction.” A sophisticated reader’s job is to identify, analyze, describe, and comment on diction.
Diction is measured in qualifiers, not quantifiers.
1. Abstract language: a diction-based rhetorical strategy used to denote ideas and
qualities rather than observable, things, people, or places. Abstract language is often
necessary to express ideas, but can be vague unless it is supported by the observable or
physical, which is usually described in concrete language. E.g. The abstract phrase “The
speaker was overcome with emotion” could mean almost anything, because there’s no
context for what overcame her. Until the writer adds the concrete phrase, “She
clenched her fist and shook it at the crowd,” the reader cannot interpret the emotion as
anger.
2. Allusion: a diction-based rhetorical strategy in which a writer briefly refers to an event,
book, myth, place, or work of art that the reader is expected to recognize so the writer
can evoke a vivid impression. Allusions can be historical (such as Jonathan Swift evoking
the Frenchman Psalmanazar, who masqueraded as if he was Taiwanese, in A Modest
Proposal), literary (such as Alice Walker referencing female authors Virginia Woolf and
Phillis Wheatley in In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens), religious (such as Moses and the
Bullrushes in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn), or mythical (such as the comparison
to the River Styx in Cold Mountain).
3. Ambiguity: a diction-based rhetorical strategy that capitalizes on the multiple meanings
of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage, implying that several meanings could
potentially be correct. When intended, ambiguity is an effective strategy to produce the
rhetorical effect of multiple interpretations. When unintended, ambiguity is an illogical
effect and weak writing.
4. Analogy: a diction-based rhetorical strategy in which a writer draws a similarity or
comparison between two different things to show the relationship between them, often
designed to explain an unfamiliar element by comparing it to another that is more
familiar. Often analogies are used to explain abstract or technical information in simpler,
concrete terms. The comparison suggests that if two things are alike in certain respects,
they will be alike in other ways. Analogies can make writing more vivid, imaginative,
engaging, and persuasive, but logically prove nothing. A.P. Grader’s Note: Do not
confuse with metaphor and/or simile.
5. Anecdote: a diction-based rhetorical strategy in which a writer offers a brief recounting
of a relevant episode, frequently personal or biographical and often to inject humor into
writing.
6. Antonym: a diction-based rhetorical strategy in which a writer chooses a word opposite
in meaning to another word; Synonym is viewed as the antonym to antonym, but we
will discuss how synonyms are actually myths, though antonyms do exist.
7. Aphorism: a diction-based rhetorical strategy in which a writer uses a terse statement of
known authorship that expresses a general truth or moral principle (when the
authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered a folk proverb) either to
create a memorable summation of a point or as a focusing device at the beginning of an
essay.
8. Cliché: a weak, diction-based rhetorical strategy that is an overused expression, which
should be avoided in writing.
9. Colloquialism: a diction-based rhetorical strategy that employs expressions generally
appropriate for conversation and informal writing, but usually unacceptable for formal
writing; includes contractions, clipped forms (dorm instead of dormitory), slang,
vernacular of certain locations, vague expressions (kind of or sort of), conversation fillers
(like, um, or you know), and other informal expressions such as (kids for children or get
across for communicate).
10. Concrete language: a diction-based rhetorical strategy used to denote objects or
qualities that the senses can perceive.
11. Epithet: Using an adjective (often habitually) to characterize a person or thing. The
epithet often becomes a nickname of sorts. The descriptive expression, word, or phrase
expresses some quality or attribute. (often disparaging)
12. Euphemism: a diction-based rhetorical strategy in which an author replaces a more
agreeable or polite substitute for a generally unpleasant concept; from the Greek
phrase for good speech.
13. Extended metaphor: a diction-based rhetorical strategy in which a comparison is
developed at length and occurring frequently throughout a work.
14. Hyperbole: a diction-based rhetorical strategy in which a writer deliberately
exaggerates or overstates for emphasis or humorous effect; antonym of
meiosis/understatement.
15. Jargon: a diction-based rhetorical strategy in which a writer employs the specialized
vocabulary of a profession or academic field; though it may be clear to an audience of
those in the field associated with that jargon, may not be meaningful to outsiders, so it
could lead to ambiguity.
16. Meiosis/ Understatement: a diction-based rhetorical strategy that ironically minimizes
a fact for humor or emphasis; antonym of hyperbole.
17. Purple Patch: A section of purple prose or writing that is too ornate for the surrounding
plain material
18. Sentence variety (mood): there are four major sentence moods: 1) Declarative: makes
a statement (e.g. The king is sick.); 2) Imperative: gives a command (e.g. Cure the king.);
3) Interrogative: asks a question (e.g. Is the king sick?); 4) Exclamatory: expresses strong
emotion (e.g. The king is such a hypochondriac!); strong writers do not just confine
themselves to one.
19. Sexist language: a diction-based rhetorical strategy that stereotypes people according
to sex; writers often use plural constructions to avoid sexist language.
20. Slang: a diction-based rhetorical strategy employing informal words that have
meanings that vary from locale to locale or change as time passes; frequently associated
with a particular group of people such as bikers, musicians, or urban youth; A.P.
Grader’s Note: Avoid slang in formal writing.
21. Synonym: a poorly applied diction-based rhetorical strategy that is actually unreal.
Some suggest a synonym is a word with the same basic meaning as another, but no two
words have identical meanings. If that were the case, there would be no need for the
second. There are always nuanced differences between them, and understanding those
nuances is the key to diction and therefore this course.
Imagery: a major rhetorical strategy that creates a set of verbal pictures of sensory
experiences, arouses emotions, and represents abstractions by using concrete details related to
the five senses (visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, olfactory); often patterns of imagery run
through a piece of writing, often working in concert with metaphor and simile to create a
strong, unified sensory impression; A.P. Grader’s Note: NEVER suggest that a writer uses “a lot
of imagery” or “very good imagery.” A sophisticated reader’s job is to identify, analyze,
describe, and comment on imagery. Imagery is measured in qualifiers, not quantifiers.
1. Apostrophe: an imagery-based rhetorical strategy (often poetic) that directly addresses
an absent or imaginary person, a personified abstraction, or sometimes an inanimate
object to create an effect of emotional intensity or familiarity.
2. Figures of speech/figurative language: a primarily imagery-based rhetorical strategy
that uses imaginative language to suggest a special meaning or create a special effect
(figures of speech are devices used to produce figurative language, such as apostrophe,
metaphor, personification, simile, etc.).
3. Metaphor: an imagery-based rhetorical strategy that compares or implies comparison
between two seemingly dissimilar things, often substituting one for the other to suggest
similarity; A.P. Grader’s Note: Do not confuse with analogy.
4. Metonymy: an imagery-based rhetorical strategy in which one object is associated for
that of another closely associated with it; from the Greek for changed label or substitute
name; e.g.: when a baseball player calls his bat an ax); A.P. Grader’s Note: Make sure
you DO NOT MISTAKE synecdoche for metonymy.
5. Onomatopoeia: an imagery-based rhetorical strategy (often poetic) in which natural
sounds are imitated in the sounds of the words representing them.
6. Personification: an imagery-based rhetorical strategy in which an author endows
concepts, animals, or inanimate objects with human attributes to create a vivid effect
for the reader.
7.
Simile: an imagery-based rhetorical strategy comparing two dissimilar things using like
or as; subdivision of metaphor. A.P. Grader’s Note: Do not confuse with analogy.
8. Symbol/symbolism: an imagery-based rhetorical strategy in which a concrete person,
event, or object stands for something more abstract than its literal meaning; often
symbolism can be constant from culture to culture (a white dove as a symbol of peace),
while some are specific to an audience as narrow as the readers of an individual work of
literature (the whale as a symbol of unfulfilled expectations in Moby Dick).
9. Synecdoche: an imagery-based rhetorical strategy in which a part of something stands
for the whole; e.g. when a farm worker is referred to as a hand); A.P. Grader’s Note:
Make sure you DO NOT MISTAKE synecdoche for metonymy.
Tone: both a major rhetorical strategy and effect created by use of diction- and imagery-based
strategies that describes the author’s attitude to his or her material, the audience, or both;
often easier to determine in spoken than written language; A.P. Grader’s Note: Atmosphere,
mood, or dominant impression are not to be confused with tone; A.P. Grader’s Note 2: NEVER
suggest that a writer uses “a lot of tone” or “very good tone.” A sophisticated reader’s job is to
identify, analyze, describe, and comment on tone. Tone is measured in qualifiers, not
quantifiers.
1. Caricature: a tonal rhetorical strategy in which a writer creates a grotesque likeness of
striking characteristics in a person or thing.
2. Homily: a tonal rhetorical strategy that is literally a sermon, but may include any
serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.
3. Humor: a tonal rhetorical strategy that creates the effect of comedy and is intended to
make light of serious topics.
4. Invective: a tonal rhetorical strategy in which a writer produces an emotionally violent
verbal denunciation using strong, abusive language.
5. Irony: a tonal rhetorical strategy to reflect a discrepancy between two levels of
meaning and effect that reveals a contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is
really meant; can be verbal: when what is stated is opposite its meaning, situational:
when there is a disconnect between an expected outcome and an actual occurrence,
and dramatic: when a reader understands more in a story than the character
telling/living the story does.
6. Parable: a tonal rhetorical strategy in which a writer uses a brief story to convey a
lesson.
7. Persona: a tonal rhetorical strategy in which a writer adopts a fictional voice to tell a
story; often determined by the intersection between purpose and audience.
8. Sarcasm: a tonal rhetorical strategy that often produces parody, satire, and humor as
its effects by deliberately injecting insincere, biting irony and caustic language that is
meant to hurt or ridicule; from the Greek to tear the flesh; When well done, it reads as
wit and insight; when poorly done, it reads like cruelty.
Syntax: a major rhetorical strategy in which a writer chooses words order for distinct effects;
A.P. Grader’s Note: NEVER suggest that a writer uses “a lot of syntax” or “very good syntax.” A
sophisticated reader’s job is to identify, analyze, describe, and comment on syntax. Syntax is
measured in qualifiers, not quantifiers.
1. Alliteration: a syntactical rhetorical strategy (often poetic) that repeats the initial
consonant sound in two or more neighboring words. This effect can be used to reinforce
meaning, unify ideas, and/or supply a musical cadence to a writer’s work. A.P. Grader’s
Note: Alliteration is unlikely to appear as part of a multiple-choice question, but may be
found in the rhetorical analysis passage. If the passage contains alliteration, do not
mention the strategy in an essay unless you are prepared to explain how and why the
writer uses the effect.
2. Anaphora: a syntactical rhetorical strategy that is a subdivision of parallelism, using
repetition of the same word or group of words in successive clauses. A.P. Grader’s Note:
Parallelism is a distinct type of repetition, as anaphora is a distinct kind of parallelism.
Be able to differentiate the three.
3. Assonance: a syntactical rhetorical strategy (often poetic) in which the writer repeats a
vowel sound within two or more words in close proximity.
4. Asyndeton: a syntactical rhetorical strategy in which commas are used with no
conjunction to separate a series or words, emphasizing the parts equally and speeding
up the flow of the sentence. Asyndeton takes the form X,Y,Z, as opposed to X,Y, and Z.
5. Balanced sentence: a syntactical rhetorical strategy in which both halves of the
sentence are about the same length and importance. A.P. Grader’s Note: Chiasmus is a
distinct type of balanced sentence. Be able to differentiate the two.
6. Chiasmus: a syntactical rhetorical strategy in which two opposite or contrasting words,
phrases, or clauses are balanced in a sentence because the ideas in the first clause are
reversed by those in the second. A.P. Grader’s Note: Chiasmus is a distinct type of
balanced sentence. Be able to differentiate the two.
7. Complex sentence: a syntactical rhetorical strategy in which a writer employs an
independent clause and one or more subordinate/dependent clauses.
8. Compound sentence: a syntactical rhetorical strategy in which a writer employs two
independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or semicolon.
9. Compound-complex sentence: a syntactical rhetorical strategy in which a writer
employs two independent clauses and one or more subordinate/dependent clauses.
10. Consonance: a syntactical rhetorical strategy (often poetic) in which a consonant sound
is repeated within two or more words in close proximity.
11. Inverted syntax/order: a syntactical rhetorical strategy in which normal word order is
reversed to achieve emphasis or a rhythmic effect by placing the predicate before the
subject (often colloquially referred to as Yodaspeak, but this term is not suitable for A.P.
essays); antonym of natural syntax/order.
12. Loose/cumulative sentence: a syntactical rhetorical strategy in which the main idea
(independent clause) is followed by dependent phrases and clauses; antonym of
periodic sentence.
13. Natural syntax/order: a syntactical rhetorical strategy in which the subject appears
before the predicate; antonym of inverted syntax/order.
14. Oxymoron: a syntactical rhetorical strategy in which an author juxtaposes apparently
contradictory terms; a rhetorical antithesis; from the Greek pointedly foolish.
15. Parallelism/parallel structure/parallel syntax: a syntactical rhetorical strategy that
uses similar grammatical elements within a sentence or sentences to frame words,
phrases, sentences, or paragraphs and highlight structural similarity; from Greek roots
meaning beside one another; creates an effect of equal value of ideas, coherence and
unity, a speedier read and smoother cadence for oratory; often repeats a preposition or
verbal phrase to create the effect; A.P. Grader’s Note: Parallelism is a distinct type of
repetition as anaphora is a distinct kind of parallelism. Be able to differentiate the three.
16. Periodic sentence: a syntactical rhetorical strategy in which the main idea
(independent clause) follows introductory elements such as words, phrases and
dependent clauses; antonym of loose sentence.
17. Polysyndeton: a syntactical rhetorical strategy in which multiple appearances of the
same conjunction, but no commas are used to separate a series of words, emphasizing
the parts equally and slowing the flow of the sentence and making each item more
emphatic than asyndeton; takes the form X and Y and Z, as opposed to X,Y, and Z.
18. Predicate adjective: a syntactical rhetorical strategy that is a type of subject
complement that places an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjectival clause after a
linking verb to modify or describe a subject.
19. Predicate nominative: a syntactical rhetorical strategy that is a type of subject
complement that renames a subject by placing a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause
after a linking verb.
20. Repetition: a syntactical rhetorical strategy in which a writer reuses words, sounds,
and/or ideas to create emphasis or rhythm. A.P. Grader’s Note: Parallelism is a distinct
type of repetition as anaphora is a distinct kind of parallelism. Be able to differentiate
the three.
21. Rhetorical fragments: a syntactical rhetorical strategy in which a writer deliberately
does not include either a subject or verb in an independent clause for a persuasive
purpose or desired effect; A.P. Grader’s Note: Be very careful that the reader is clear
the fragment is used for effect and not in error.
22. Sentence variety (syntax): there are four major sentence structures: 1) Simple:
contains one independent clause (e.g. The singer bowed to her adoring audience.); 2)
Compound: contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or a
semicolon (e.g. The singer bowed to her adoring audience, but she sang no encores.); 3)
Complex: contains one independent clause and one or more subordinate or dependent
clauses (e.g. The singer bowed to her adoring audience, but sang no encores.); 4)
Compound-complex: contains two or more independent clauses and one or more
subordinate or dependent clauses (e.g. The singer bowed to her adoring audience and
ignored their pleas for an encore, but instead she went to a party in her honor at a
nearby club.); strong writers ensure that they do not just confine themselves to one.
23. Simple sentence: a syntactical rhetorical strategy in which a writer employs only one
independent clause.
Organizational
1. Anticlimax: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which a writer suddenly drops from
the dignified or important in thought or expression to the commonplace or trivial, often
for humorous effect; in fiction, anticlimax is an effect produced when an author
deliberately subdues the action at an expected highpoint to manipulate the reader’s
emotions. The two are distinct meanings.
2. Antithesis: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which a writer includes a viewpoint
opposite the one expressed in the thesis. In argumentative writing, the thesis must be
debatable, otherwise the writing is flat and purposeless because there is no room for
thought. If no antithesis exists, the thesis cannot be debatable.
3. Causal chain: an organizational rhetorical strategy used when writing in the rhetorical
mode cause and effect in which a writer uses a sequence of events to show how one
causes another, and how the second event in turn causes a third, and so on.
4. Chronological/temporal order: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which ideas or
events are arranged by the time sequence of their occurrence; frequently employed in
narrative and process essays.
5. Claim: an element of the organizational rhetorical strategy Toulmin logic that
establishes the thesis of an essay; usually it is stated directly, but it can be implied.
6. Deductive reasoning: an organizational rhetorical strategy that moves from a general
premise to a specific conclusion; antonym of inductive reasoning.
7. Digression: an organizational rhetorical strategy (often weak) in which an author
provides a remark or series of remarks that stray from the main point; in narrative, a
personal digression may be entertaining because of its irrelevance, but in other modes,
it is likely to lead to incoherence, distraction, and confusion.
8. Documentation: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which an author formally gives
credit to sources of borrowed words or ideas; allows readers to evaluate a writer’s
sources and consult them if they wish to determine the argument’s credibility; most
college-level humanities courses ask students to employ the Modern Language
Association’s (M.L.A.) rules of documentation (see Hacker).
9. Epigraph: an organizational rhetorical strategy that employs a quotation or aphorism at
the beginning of a literary work to suggest the work’s theme.
10. Ethos: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which the writer uses an ethical appeal to
capitalize off the speaker’s credibility and evoke a moral response; excess can lead to
patronizing the reader and sermonizing; used most effectively in concert with logos and
pathos as part of the rhetorical triangle.
11. Evidence: an organizational rhetorical strategy employing facts and opinions used to
support a statement position or idea. Facts include examples, reasons, statistics, or
other details. Opinions include conclusions of experts or the writer’s personal
experiences. In order to support claims, evidence must be relevant, specific, adequate,
representative, and documented.
12. Example: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which a writer provides a concrete,
specific, illustration of a general point.
13. Extended definition: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which a writer develops the
meaning of a term over the course of a paragraph-, essay-, or book-length work.
14. Flashback: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which action returns to an earlier
time in a narrative for making something in the present clearer; created by a writer
using in medias res.
15. First-person point-of-view: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which the narrator
speaks from his/her own perspective, in his/her own voice, as a character in the
narrative, and using the pronouns associated with I; first-person narration allows a
closer connection between narrator and audience. The first-person narrator need not
be the protagonist, but can be a participant (secondary character), or a simple observer
who watches the action.
16. Grounds: an element of the organizational rhetorical strategy Toulmin logic that a
writer uses to support a claim; may be evidence (facts or expert opinions) or appeals
(ethos, logos, or pathos) to the emotions or values of an audience.
17. Inductive leap: an element of the organizational strategy inductive reasoning that
ensures the conclusion is never certain, only probable.
18. Inductive reasoning: an organizational rhetorical strategy that moves from specific
evidence to a general conclusion based on this evidence; antonym of deductive
reasoning; principal form of reasoning in science and history.
19. In medias res: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which a writer begins a narrative
in the middle of the action; often accompanied by flashback or dialogue that explains
what has gone before; means in Greek into the middle of things.
20. Juxtaposition: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which a writer places elements,
characters, scenes, or objects side by side for the purposes of comparison and contrast.
21. Logos: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which the writer uses a logical appeal to
evoke reason; excess can lead to too cold or robotic a response; used most effectively in
concert with ethos and pathos as part of the rhetorical triangle.
22. Objective description: an organizational rhetorical strategy that presents a detached,
factual picture in a plain, direct manner; though pure objectivity is an impossibility,
writers of science papers, technical reports, news articles, and others strive for precise
language that is free of value judgments; antonym of subjective description.
23. Order of complexity: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which ideas are presented
according to their relative complexity; usually from most complex to least.
24. Order of importance: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which ideas are presented
according to their relative significance; usually from most meaningful to least.
25. Paradox: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which a writer uses a term that
appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense, but upon closer
inspection contains an acceptable and often profound meaning; often used for
emphasis or to attract attention.
26. Pathos: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which the writer uses an emotional
appeal to evoke empathy or other feeling; excess can lead to too emotional a response;
used most effectively in concert with ethos and logos as part of the rhetorical triangle.
27. Point-by-point comparison: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which a writer first
makes a point about one subject and follows it with a comparable point about another
subject; antonym of subject-by-subject comparison.
28. Point of view: an organizational rhetorical strategy a writer uses to determine from
whose perspective a story is told; subdivided into first-, second-, and third-person.
29. Premise: an element of the organizational rhetorical strategy deductive reasoning that
is a statement of fact; can be divided into major and minor premises, where the minor
premise clarifies the major premise by being more specific.
30. Process explanation: an organizational strategy that enables readers to understand a
process rather than perform it.
31. Quotation: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which a writer uses exact words
from a source enclosed in quotation marks; should only be used to present a particularly
memorable statement or to avoid a paraphrase that would change original meaning; DO
NOT OVERUSE.
32. Refutation: an organizational rhetorical strategy a writer uses to counter an opposing
argument by revealing its weaknesses, including the three most common: fallacies or
logical flaws, inadequate evidence, and irrelevance; strengthens an argument by
showing a writer is aware of the complexity of the issue by considering opposing
viewpoints.
33. Rhetorical question: an organizational rhetorical strategy that is asked for effect, not to
be answered.
34. Rogerian argument: an organizational rhetorical strategy advocated by psychologist
Carl Rogers, who rejected the adversarial approach of most arguments; instead of
attacking the opposition, Rogers suggests acknowledging the validity of opposing
positions and finding areas of agreement to reduce conflict and increase chances a final
position will satisfy all parties.
35. Second-person point-of-view: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which the
narrator speaks to the reader’s own perspective using the pronouns associated with
you; second-person narration reads like an imperative from narrator to audience;
second-person narration is the least common of the three points of view.
36. Spatial order: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which ideas are presented
according to their location; can be from left to right, front to back, near to far, etc.
37. Stream of consciousness: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which an author
attempts to produce an unembellished flow of thoughts in the human mind with its
feelings, judgments, associations, and memories.
38. Subject-by-subject comparison: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which a writer
first discusses one subject in full and follows it with a comparable discussion of the
entirety of another subject; antonym of point-by-point comparison.
39. Subjective description: an organizational rhetorical strategy that contains value
judgments or language that is involved; focuses on author’s reaction to event, conveying
not just a factual account of details but also their significance; may include poetic or
colorful words to impart an emotional response; antonym of objective description.
40. Thesis: an organizational rhetorical strategy that expresses an essay’s main idea; the
absence of such will lead an essay to incoherence, disunity, ambiguity, and ultimately
failure; the idea that all main points in the body of an essay support; may be implied,
but is usually explicitly stated in a thesis statement; a strong thesis statement includes a
glimpse at the writer’s approach to the subject, purpose, and rhetorical mode that will
be followed in the essay.
41. Third-person point-of-view: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which the narrator
speaks from the perspective of another, but the character need not be an actor in the
narrative, and uses pronouns associated with he, she and it; third-person narration can
allow more objectivity than a first-person narrator, who is limited by his or her own
experience. There are two distinct types of third-person narrators: an omniscient thirdperson narrator has godlike knowledge so he or she can present the thoughts and
actions of any or all characters, a limited third-person narrator can present the actions
of all characters, but only the thoughts of one.
42. Topic sentence: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which a sentence states the
main idea of a body paragraph; usually the first sentence of a body paragraph; topic
sentences should open with a transition, be concise, and express directionality.
43. Toulmin logic: an organizational rhetorical strategy to use argumentation as it occurs in
daily life; developed by philosopher Stephen Toumin, it divides argument into the claim
(thesis of an essay), the grounds (support for a claim: evidence or appeals), and the
warrant (inference that connects claims to grounds).
44. Transitions: an organizational rhetorical strategy in which words or expressions link
ideas in writing; words such as however, therefore, and then, are often used as
transitions, but there can be entire phrases, sentences, paragraphs, or longer passages
that can serve as these links.
45. Warrant: an element of the organizational rhetorical strategy Toulmin logic, specifically
the inference that connects the claim to the grounds; can be a belief taken for granted
or an assumption that underlies the argument.
Fallacies: weak rhetorical strategies that resemble logical arguments but are actually flawed.
Logical fallacies are often persuasive, but often unfairly manipulate readers to win agreement.
1. Ad hominem argument / attack: a weak rhetorical strategy and logical fallacy that is a
personal attack on the character or traits of one’s opponents rather than the
opponent’s argument or ideas.
2. Appeal to ignorance: a weak rhetorical strategy and logical fallacy in which the writer
depends on the lack of evidence for one side to prove his or her position.
3. Argument from analogy/false analogy: a weak rhetorical strategy and logical fallacy in
which a writer creates an insufficient parallel between two cases so the reader cannot,
or should not, accept the connection between them; the writer falsely assumes that
because two ideas are alike in several regards, they are similar in all. Argument from
analogy fails because the analogy frequently ignores important dissimilarities between
the two things being compared.
4. Begging the question: a weak rhetorical strategy and logical fallacy that occurs when
the evidence depends on the believability of the claim. Often called circular reasoning,
begging the question assumes a statement to be self-evident even when it has not been
proven so.
5. Either/or fallacy (false dilemma): a weak rhetorical strategy and logical fallacy in which
the writer reduces an issue to polar opposites and ignores possible alternatives.
6. Equivocation: a weak rhetorical strategy and logical fallacy in which the writer changes
the meaning of a key term during the course of a single argument; makes it seem as if a
conclusion follows from premises when it actually does not.
7. Hasty/sweeping generalization: a weak rhetorical strategy and logical fallacy that is
akin to jumping to a conclusion because the writer makes a conclusion based on too
little evidence.
8. Misleading statistics: a weak rhetorical strategy and logical fallacy that distorts data to
manipulate an audience.
9. Non sequitur: a weak rhetorical strategy and logical fallacy that occurs when the
argument does not logically follow a previous statement; Greek for it does not follow.
10. Post hoc reasoning/post hoc, ergo propter hoc: a weak rhetorical strategy and logical
fallacy that occurs when a writer falsely implies that because one thing follows another,
the first caused the second, mistaking sequence for causation.
11. Red herring: a weak rhetorical strategy and logical fallacy that occurs when a writer
raises an irrelevant issue to divert the audience’s attention from the real one.
12. Straw man: a weak rhetorical strategy and logical fallacy that occurs when a writer
claims that because a miniscule element of an opponent’s argument is invalid, the entire
argument must be invalid.
13. Tu quoque: a weak rhetorical strategy and logical fallacy that assumes the opponent’s
argument has no value because the opponent does not follow his or her own advice;
from the Greek you also.
14. Ad misericordium: a weak rhetorical strategy and logical fallacy that occurs when
writers appeal to readers’ emotions in an effort to distract readers from using logic.
Rhetorical Effects: produced by a writer’s employment of rhetorical strategies; Examples of
rhetorical effects: apprehension, comfort, comprehension, confusion, detachment, distance,
attraction, personal connection, fear, nostalgia; A.P. Grader’s Note: DO NOT MISTAKE
rhetorical strategies for rhetorical effects. UNDERSTAND that all writers make choices to
produce effects.
1. Bombast: a diction-based and tonal rhetorical effect created by inflated language in
which overly high-sounding language is used for a trivial subject.
2. Cadence: a desirable syntactical rhetorical effect created by rhythmic word order.
3. Change of opinion: a logical rhetorical effect created when the author has successfully
persuaded the reader to abandon previous notions in favor of those written.
4. Clarity: a logical rhetorical effect achieved when the reader leaves the piece with a
complete understanding of the writer’s thesis and has no unanswered questions.
5. Climax: an organizational rhetorical effect created and an element of all fiction, which
all depend on initial conflicts that rise in action toward a high point.
6. Coherence: a logical rhetorical effect created in strong writing in which there is a tight
relationship between all components of the essay; depends on logical order, effective
transitions, skillful repetition of key words and ideas, accurate use of pronouns to refer
to nouns mentioned previously, and parallel sentence structure.
7. Comedy: a tonal rhetorical effect created by the use of humor, often to make light of
serious events.
8. Connotation: a diction-based rhetorical effect created by associating meanings or
feelings to a words literal (denotative) meaning; E.g. the literal meaning of home is
one’s place of residence, but it’s implied, suggested, or associative meaning could be
warmth or a sense of belonging.
9. Didactic: a tonal rhetorical effect created by words that convey a sense of teaching a
moral or specific lesson for ethical behavior.
10. Mood/ Dominant impression: a tonal rhetorical effect central to a piece of writing
created by tonal choices the author makes to ensure a prevailing emotion for the reader
in the work; setting, tone, diction, syntax, and events all affect mood; A.P. Grader’s
Note: Though often used as a synonym for atmosphere, mood or dominant impression
are not to be confused with tone.
11. Omniscience: an organizational rhetorical effect created by using a specific type of
third-person point-of-view; an omniscient narrator knows not only his or her thoughts,
but those of other characters as well.
12. Parody: a rhetorical mode and a tonal rhetorical effect created by use of sarcasm by
closely imitating the style or content of another work with the specific aim of comedy
and/or ridicule; often creates caricatures by distorting or exaggerating distinctive
features of the original; often depend on audience’s knowledge to catch allusions to the
original; A.P. Grader’s Note: Be able to distinguish parody from satire.
13. Pedantic: a tonal rhetorical effect produced when a writer uses words that are overly
scholarly, academic, or bookish.
14. Satire: a rhetorical mode and a tonal rhetorical effect created by use of sarcasm, wit,
irony, hyperbole, meiosis, caricature, and ridicule to attack foolishness, incompetence,
or evil in a person or idea; targets human vices or follies or social institutions and
conventions for reform, ridicule, or to entertain; A.P. Grader’s Note: Be able to
distinguish parody from satire.
15. Syllogism: a logical rhetorical effect produced by deductive reasoning; includes three
parts: a major premise that makes a general statement, a minor premise that makes a
related but more specific statement, and a conclusion drawn from those premises.
16. Unity: a logical rhetorical effect created when every sentence in a paragraph (or every
paragraph in a work) relates directly to the main idea stated in a topic sentence (or
thesis).
17. Validity: a logical rhetorical effect created when the argumentation is devoid of
fallacies, achieves unity and coherence, and creates a syllogism.
18. Verisimilitude: a tonal rhetorical effect created when a writer successfully persuades
the reader of a vision of life as it really exists.
19. Wit: a tonal effect in which a writer displays quickness of intellect and power for saying
brilliant things that surprise and delight with their unexpectedness; power to comment
subtly on surrounding foibles.
Strategies and Tools for Analytical Reading and Writing
1. Analysis: a reading strategy in which the reader probes beyond mere memorization,
summary, and comprehension to make connections between the text and outside ideas
by asking why.
2. Annotation: a reading technique that allows one to more fully engage with a text by
writing notes in the margins, asking questions, suggesting possible parallels with other
selections or with the reader’s own experience, arguing for or against the writer’s
points, commenting on the writer’s style, or defining unfamiliar terms and concepts.
3. Bloom’s Taxonomy: a hierarchy of learning objectives teachers should pursue and
associated cognitive skills students should develop established by educational
psychologist Benjamin Bloom at the University of Chicago in 1956; 1) Knowledge, 2)
Comprehension, 3) Application, 4) Analysis, 5) Synthesis, 6) Evaluation; A.P. Grader’s
Note: This class feels different than most others in high school, because the
overwhelming majority of high school classes never ask students to extend beyond
Levels 1 or 2. Consequently, students who do not advance to the four highest levels of
Bloom’s Taxonomy can never score beyond Level 1 or 2 on the A.P. exam.
4. Brainstorming: a pre-writing strategy in which a writer jots down every fact or idea that
relates to a particular topic.
5. Clustering: a pre-writing strategy whereby an author groups ideas visually by listing the
main topic in the center of a page, circling it, and surrounding it with words or phrases
that identify major points to be addressed. Then the writer circles these words or
phrases to create new clusters. A.P. Grader’s Note: This method often leads to
scattered, incoherent writing and is not recommended.
6. D.I.D.S.O: an acronym designed to help students investigate passages for rhetorical
analysis, particularly tone; examines Diction (word choice), Imagery (vivid sensory
appeals), Details (facts and evidence), Syntax (word order), and Organization (of the
piece).
7. Drafting: a pre-writing strategy in which the author creates a rough written sketch of a
future piece of writing.
8. Editing: a post-writing strategy in which the author combs through the writing for
conventional errors and interruptions to coherence, cadence, and fluidity; not to be
confused with revision.
9. Formal outline: a pre-writing strategy in which a writer plots out paragraph by
paragraph using a consistent style.
10. Freewriting: a pre-writing strategy in which a writer writes without stopping for a fixed
period (five-10 minutes) without regard for spelling, grammar, or punctuation with the
goal getting a flow of ideas on paper.
11. Journal writing: a pre-writing strategy that involves recording ideas emerging from
reading or other experiences and then exploring them in writing.
12. L.E.A.D.: an acronym designed to help students investigate passages for rhetorical
analysis, particularly diction and language; Low or informal (slang, colloquialisms, less
affluent dialects), Elevated or formal (jargon or more affluent dialects), Abstract or
concrete language, Denotation and Connotation.
13. Looping: a pre-writing strategy that involves isolating one idea from a piece of
freewriting and using this idea to focus a new piece of freewriting.
14. Paraphrasing: a reading technique and occasional research-based writing technique of
restating another’s words in one’s own, following the order and emphasis of the
original.
15. Revision: a continual and post-writing strategy that literally means to see again, so it is
more than editing or proofreading; reexamining and rethinking a piece of writing.
16. Rhetorical triangle: the intersection of ethos, logos, and pathos, which are concepts
Aristotle said were the basis of the ability to persuade in rhetoric.
17. Socratic Method: a teaching method attributed to Greek philosopher Socrates in which
a questioner probes students to stimulate rational thinking and illumination of ideas.
18. S.O.A.P.S.Tone: an acronym designed to help students investigate passages for
rhetorical analysis, particularly tone; Speaker (What assumptions can be made about
the author?), Occasion (What prompted the author to write this?), Audience What
assumptions can be made about the audience?), Purpose (How is the audience
supposed to feel?), Subject (What is this writing about?), Tone (What is the author’s
attitude toward the subject?).
19. Summary: a reading technique and occasional research-based writing technique of
restating ideas of a source in one’s own words, but unlike paraphrasing, summary just
conveys a general sense of the idea without following the order and emphasis of the
original.
Elements of Writing
1. Antecedent: an element of writing that is the word, phrase, or clause referred to by a
pronoun. A.P. Grader’s Note: The exam will often ask the test taker to identify the
antecedent in a long, complex sentence or group of sentences.
2. Audience: an element of writing that the writer must account for when determining
tone, examples, and allusions that readers will understand and respond to. A sensitive
author ensures that the group who receives the author’s words determines how those
words are chosen.
3. Basis for comparison: an element of the rhetorical mode comparison/contrast that
looks at fundamental similarities between two or more things that enables a writer to
compare them.
4. Body paragraph: an element of writing that develops or supports an essay’s thesis.
5. Clause: an element of writing that is a grammatical unit containing both a subject and a
verb.
6. Colon: an element of writing that punctuates the introduction of a logical sequence,
effect, fact stated before, or a description.
7. Common knowledge: an element of writing that does not require citation because it is
factual information that is widely available in reference sources.
8. Conclusion: an element of writing that comprises the sentence(s) that bring an essay to
a close; not only to end, but also to resolve because an effective conclusion shows that a
writer is committed to the ideas expressed; last chance to leave an impression on the
reader.
9. Coordinating conjunction: an element of writing that is a part of speech that connects
to words, phrases, or clauses.
10. Denotation/formal definition: an element of writing that expresses a word’s literal,
dictionary meaning.
11. Dependent/subordinate clause: an element of writing that is a grammatical unit
containing both a subject and a verb that cannot stand alone as a sentence, so it must
be accompanied by an independent clause.
12. Ellipsis: an element of writing and syntactical rhetorical strategy that accounts for the
omission of a word or words and can also slow down the cadence of a sentence.
13. Genre: an element of writing that describes the category in which writing fits because it
displays distinct generic conventions that differentiate it from other divisions and
subdivisions. Basic divisions include poetry, prose, and drama; however, subdivisions
such as fiction (which can then be subdivided into novels and fiction, and novels into
epistolary, vignette-driven, Victorian, etc.) and non-fiction (which can then be
subdivided into essays, (auto)biography, journals, etc.) are also called genres.
14. Independent clause: an element of writing that is a grammatical unit containing both a
subject and a verb that can stand alone as a sentence; also called a main clause.
15. Introduction: an element of writing that opens an essay; may be as small as a single
sentence (thesis statement only) or as many as several paragraphs depending on the
length of the essay; where a writer tries to encourage the audience to read the
following by indicating what direction the essay will take.
16. Occasion: an element of writing, like audience, that expresses under what
circumstances the writing took place or what prompted the writer to write.
17. Purpose: an element of writing that is the reason the writer began; produces distinct
rhetorical effects such as entertainment, information, emotional response, persuasion,
etc.
18. Paragraph: an element of writing that is the basic unit of an essay; composed of related
sentences that together express a unified, single idea that is often stated in the topic
sentence.
19. Structure: an element of writing that involves the decisions a writer makes with regard
to organization and syntax.
20. Subject: an element of writing that is the focus of a piece of writing; often determined
by assignment.
21. Subject complement: an element of writing that is a word (and accompanying phrases)
or clause that follows a linking verb to complement or complete it by either renaming it
or describing it.
22. Topic: an element of writing that explains the subject of the essay.
23. Zeugma: the ellipsis (omission) of a verb. One verb is left to govern a number of
clauses.
Rhetorical Modes: the variety, conventions, and purposes of the major kinds of writing, with
the four most common being exposition, argumentation, description, and narration.
1. Argumentation: a rhetorical mode that takes a stand on an issue and attempts to
convince readers by presenting a logical sequence of points supported by evidence.
Unlike persuasion, which uses a number of different appeals, argumentation is primarily
an appeal to reason.
2. Cause and effect: a method of exposition that discusses the reasons for an occurrence
or the observed and predicted consequences of and occurrence. Usually, both are
discussed in the same essay.
3. Causes: an element of the rhetorical mode cause and effect that discuss the reasons for
an event, situation or phenomenon. Types of causes include: immediate, which is easily
perceived, remote, which is less easily perceived, main, which is the most important
whether it is immediate or remote, or contributory, which is less important whether it is
immediate or remote.
4. Classification: a method of exposition in which an author arranges material in groups by
common characteristics; classification generalizes, while division specifies.
5. Comparison and contrast: a method of exposition that focuses on similarities and/or
differences between two or more subjects; comparison shows how subjects alike, while
contrast highlights differences.
6. Definition: a method of exposition in which a writer explains what something or
someone is.
7. Description: a rhetorical mode that presents a word picture of a thing, person, situation,
or series of events.
8. Division: a method of exposition in which an author breaks up an entity into smaller
groups; division specifies, while classification generalizes.
9. Elegy: a form of expressive writing. Elegies are either songs or poems, written in elegiac
couplets, that expresses sorrow or lamentation, usually for one who has died.
10. Essay: a general rhetorical mode that comes from the French word (essai) for attempt.
11. Eulogy: A speech or written work paying tribute to a person who has recently died.
While elegies lament death, eulogies praise the life the deceased led.
12. Exemplification: a method of exposition that uses a single extended example or series
of shorter examples to support a thesis.
13. Expository writing/prose: a rhetorical mode in which writing explains or analyzes.
14. Informative writing: a rhetorical mode that includes essay exams, lab or book reports,
expository essays, and some research papers.
15. Narration: a rhetorical mode that tells a story.
16. Principle of classification: an element of the rhetorical mode classification and division
that describes the quality that items have in common as the basis for the category they
share.
17. Process: a method of exposition that presents a series of steps in a procedure in
chronological order and shows how the sequence leads to a particular result.
Grammatical and other errors
1. Comma splice: a grammatical error and type of run-on sentence that occurs when two
independent clauses (sentences) are incorrectly joined with only a comma between
them.
2. Commonly confused words: a slew of usage errors that occur when a writer mistakes
homonyms, homophones, or other words or phrases that when incorrectly punctuated
produce the wrong form (see Hacker for a complete list); cured by printing two copies of
an essay, handing one to any literate person, and reading aloud so you can both
proofread by sight and sound.
3. Dangling modifiers: a grammatical error that occurs usually at the beginning of a
sentence when a writer inadvertently places an adjective in front of a word or group of
words that do not appear in the sentence, resulting in the unintentional, incorrect
modification of the subsequent words; see page 143 of Patterns.
4. Fused sentences: a grammatical error and type of run-on sentence that occurs when
two independent clauses (sentences) are incorrectly joined without punctuation.
5. Lack of agreement: either of two types of grammatical errors that occur when 1) lack
of subject-verb agreement: the writer’s subject does not match in number with the
corresponding verb (Remember: singular subjects take singular verbs, and plural
subjects take plural verbs), or 2) lack of pronoun-antecedent agreement: the writer’s
antecedent (noun or pronoun to which the previous pronoun refers) does not match in
number with the previous pronoun (Remember: singular pronouns require singular
antecedents, and plural pronouns require plural antecedents); see pages 653-654 of
Patterns.
6. Misspelled words and typos: any grammatical errors that is easily fixed by taking care
to read over one’s work aloud before submission.
7. Misplaced modifiers: a grammatical error that occurs when a writer inadvertently
places an adjective in the wrong place, resulting in an illogical, and often humorous,
mistake; see pages 142-143 of Patterns.
8. Passive voice (when used haphazardly): a construction that occurs when a writer
makes the object of action the subject of a sentence; it is not inherently an error, but
the passive voice often weakens writing because it leads to confusion about the doer of
an action, and also because it adds unnecessary words by reversing a construction.
9. Plagiarism: a strategic error in writing in which a writer intentionally or unintentionally
presents words or ideas of another as if they were the author’s own; should be avoided
always.
10. Run-on sentence: a pair of grammatical errors that occurs when the writer loses sight
of sentence boundaries, incorrectly omitting necessary punctuation or coordinating
conjunctions; A.P. Grader’s Note: Do not mistake this for polysyndeton. There is no
rhetorical run-on sentence. It is always an error.
11. Sentence fragment: a grammatical error that occurs when the writer produces a group
of words that lacks either a subject or verb; A.P. Grader’s Note: Some writers have
enough control to attempt a rhetorical sentence fragment (see the section above on
syntactical rhetorical strategies), but most attempts fall flat.
12. Solecism: A violation of prescriptive grammatical rules. "he don't" and "between you
and I" are solecisms. Loosely, the term refers to any error in diction or grammar, but
some reserve it for errors in grammar alone.
13. Unnecessary shifts: four types of grammatical errors that confuse the reader, because
they make writing difficult to follow; 1) Tense: maintain present or past unless indicating
a change in time; when writing about literature, the present tense is preferred due to
the belief that the characters’ stories are always happening; 2) Person: maintain first-,
second-, or third-person unless point-of-view must change to accommodate the address
of, or words of, a new narrator; 3) Voice: maintain active voice when emphasizing the
doer of the action over the action, and maintain passive voice when emphasizing the
action itself, not the doer of it; either way, do not switch between the two unless there
is a need to switch emphasis; 4) Mood: do not randomly switch between the following:
conditional (could have, should have, would have), imperative (command form),
indicative/declarative (simple recounting), subjunctive (were, rather than was, where
appropriate), infinitive (basic form of a verb), interrogative (questioning), exclamatory
(expressions of huge emotion), etc.; see pages 249-251 of Patterns.