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Joint International IGIP-SEFI Annual Conference 2010, 19 - 22 September 2010, Trnava, Slovakia
COMPETENCE ORIENTED TEACHER TRAINING
Sigrun Eichhorn and Manuela Niethammer
Dresden University of Technology, 01062 Dresden, Faculty of Education
sigrun.eichhorn@tu-dresden.de;
manuela.niethammer@tu-dresden.de
Abstract: Newcomers reflect and evaluate lessons by judging outside
characteristics, such as time management, visible patterns of action (for example the
reading of a text, the copying of a panel), or the like (episodic representations). Thus,
only the phenomenological aspect of teaching and learning is accessible to them.
Experts analyse, evaluate, and devise lessons by engaging the inner, psychological
processes of teaching and learning. Foremost those are the correlations between the
instructions given by the teacher and the cognitive achievement they initiate in the
learner, for example interpreting, comparing, abstracting, and arranging facts and
connections. Experts characterise the process of teaching and learning as an aimcontent-method relation that cannot be separated (categorical and hypothetical
representations).
Studies show that the development of competencies from the stage of a newcomer to
that of an expert cannot be achieved merely by conveying knowledge of experts and
professionals in a theoretical framework. It is more often the case that students in
teacher training have a hard time seeing correlations between the professional,
academic knowledge taught and their preconceptions of teaching. They are more
likely to use teaching methods and scripts which they experienced themselves for
years [1]. This means that they never get past the stage of episodic representation.
In teacher training, the main objective is to abolish the reproduction of those didactic
patterns and to replace them by a theory-based development of competencies. To do
so, the following questions need to be considered:
 What levels of didactic competence can be detected and identified by which
indicators?
 What barriers between the individual levels have to be overcome and which
basic approaches can initiate and promote such actions?
The first precondition for developing a competence-oriented teacher training is that
newcomers to teaching will acquire first-hand teaching experience. Based on these
experiences episodic representations can be formulated which can then be
connected with professional knowledge and motivate the further development to
categorical and hypothetical representations.
Keywords: teacher training, teaching competence, teaching concepts
1. Initial Situation
Studies show barriers in teacher trainees competence development in the field
―teaching.―
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Joint International IGIP-SEFI Annual Conference 2010, 19 - 22 September 2010, Trnava, Slovakia
By contrast to experts, beginners often have difficulties to establish connections
between taught professional knowledge and their own teaching concept. They mainly
capture teaching by means of superficial characteristics such as time management or
noticeable action patterns (= episodic representations). On the other hand, experts
analyse lessons with regard to the psychological structure of teaching and learning
processes. They succeed in doing so due to their knowledge of correlations between
teaching activity and the thereby initiated cognitive activities of the learners
(professional knowledge). This knowledge quality is the basis for efficient and
appropriate teacher activities according to the situation [2]. It is characterised by
linking episodic, categorical and hypothetical teaching representations which can
hardly be established by solely theoretical knowledge imparting.
The development of such knowledge structures requires working with specific
teaching situations. Correspondingly, the integration of teacher trainings (cf [3]; [4])
as well as the use of approaches to ―situated learning― [5], [6] [7]1 are recommended
for the teacher education. Still, (video-based) teaching reflection as a method for
teacher training is rarely found in Germany [8] 2. On the one hand, reasons for it are
social and individually psychologically barriers which impede a critical and
constructive observation or evaluation of their own lesson [9]. On the other hand, the
current state of research concerning the effectiveness of video-based teacher
education is still dissatisfactory [10], [11].
2. Research Topics
For the implementation of teaching reflection as a competence oriented teacher
education method, the following subproblems are to be clarified:
 overcoming social and individually psychologically barriers3 for a critical and
constructive observation or evaluation of their own lessons [9],
 the design of the concept has to follow the logic sequence of the development
levels, i.e. a selection and preparation of teaching situations in connection with
suitable observation, reflection and optimisation tasks following the teacher
trainees‘ learning conditions because the high complexity and dynamics of
real teaching are mostly hard to determine, especially by newcomers
 empirical testing of the approach effectiveness
3. Competence Oriented Approach for Didactic Education
3.1 Developing Indicators for the Competence Development Based on a Model
for the Description of Teaching Competence Development (Expert-NoviceApproach)
Models for the description of the competence development are nothing new. The
theories on competence development by Havighurst [12] as well as Dreyfus and
Dreyfus [13], which base on a logic sequence of the development levels are
important and have already been taken up by technical and vocational education and
training research since the late 1980s.
The starting point is that experts are distinguished from novices regarding the
knowledge development of area specific deep structure (domain knowledge) [1], [14],
[15]. Experts characterise a professional problem situation predominantly by their
nature on a high-level of abstraction. However, novices mainly notice details,
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Joint International IGIP-SEFI Annual Conference 2010, 19 - 22 September 2010, Trnava, Slovakia
superficial characteristics [16]. Respectively, domain knowledge of experts and
novices differs in terms of quality of the domain specific knowledge structures. This
provides starting points for the description of professional competence levels. The
quality of these knowledge structures is linked to the type of internal organisation and
elaboration of this knowledge. Categories, cognitive schemes and mental models are
fundamental cognitive units for internal organisation and elaboration of knowledge.
Based on these cognitive units, the acting person can realize that a given situation
shows similarities with experienced situations in the past (analogies), so that they
can benefit from existing knowledge about objects, action patterns, correlations,
explanations, reasons (cf [17]) in categories, schemes and models.
On this basis, Eichhorn [18] describes a model for the development of vocational
competence in the laboratory work domain. The object-related knowledge structures
are a first differentiation criterion for different competence levels. A secondly
essential differentiation criterion for competence levels is the degree of selfmonitoring and self-controlling of the subjectively available task-related cognitive
resources and strategies [18], [19].
This approach was used by Eichhorn and Niethammer [20] on the domain ―teaching―
to obtain orientations for the creation and evaluation of competence oriented teacher
training. A phase model for subject or profession-related didactical competence
development is created on the basis of the scaling criteria as mentioned above, from
which the indicators for the evaluation of professionally or subject-related didactical
competence can be deduced.
Unlike teaching beginners, teaching experts pay less attention to superficial,
irrelevant details according to the activity flow, since they are skilled in categories
and event schemes to analyse and create the teacher and student activity structures
[21]. In this case, categories, cognitive schemes and mental models have to
represent the high-level complexity of the scope of action ―teaching.― The adequate
representation of the non-separable (multidimensional) aim-content-method relation
is of particular importance. The interdependent methodological dimensions (teaching
and learning steps, action patterns and social structures, teaching aids) are to be
created by an interdependence towards the aims and content of the teaching and
learning process. Firstly, in this respect, the categories, cognitive schemes and
mental models have to be able to be extended/modified for the sphere of
competence ―teaching― to represent this adequately, and secondly, to be activated on
demand as well as appropriately for any particular situation.
In particular, the differentiation between the schemes and mental models should be
emphasised. By schemes, primarily superficial aspects of the didactic and
methodological scope of action are represented (episodic and categorical
representation of ordinary situations, action patterns, etc.). Mental models are
necessary to give reasons for the usefulness of an action pattern, a lesson or to plan
teaching and learning processes which reflect their essential aspects (hypothetical
representations). In parallel with the selectively appropriate activation of these
cognitive units, these are evaluated and elaborated in multiple (also new) contexts,
i.e. enriched, modified or even substantially altered (cf [20]). Additionally, subjectrelated knowledge structures are required for the reflecting, controlling and modifying
of the existing object-related knowledge structures (so-called ―meta-knowledge―) by
which a self-monitoring and self-controlling function is realised.
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Joint International IGIP-SEFI Annual Conference 2010, 19 - 22 September 2010, Trnava, Slovakia
Performance and behaviour in teaching situations of varying complexity and
complicatedness are indicators of the competence levels achieved by the teacher
students. The following indicators can be used for the competence level II of didactic
competence which has to be developed at first during the teacher education:
 recognition of important superficial situational elements - characterisation of
episodic representations through didactic-methodological categories and
schemes (use and testing of adopted categoric representations such as
teacher personality, student activity, use of teaching aids),
 recognition of important essential situational elements - reasons and
explanations for superficial situational elements (categorical representations,
especially schemes) through adopted mental models (hypothetical
representations), e.g. cognitive ways, components of action regulation and
their reflection and adaption,
 self-monitoring and self-controlling.
3.2 Approach for a Competence Oriented, (Self-)Reflective Teacher Education4
A better understanding, diagnosis and handling of the students‘ developmental
problems or barriers in the sphere of competence ―teaching― can be realised by
means of the introduced indicators.
Newcomers, i.e. first-year teacher students, start with very different qualifications. In
particular, existing schemes referring teaching play a major role in teaching oriented
competence development. Generally, they correspond to the episodic
representations, and they are formed by reflecting experienced lessons from a
student‘s point of view. These schemes determine the subjective students‘ theory
concerning teaching methods. They may disapprove the structures of the
professional knowledge that is imparted. In this case, there are no correlations
between the available schemes and the provided schemes/mental models in the
study course for the persons concerned. The new content is retained without any
interconnection to personal understanding of pedagogical activity [1] and therefore,
they cannot be guiding principles.
A starting point for competence oriented teacher training is
 to ensure the acquisition of teaching experiences which form a basis for
building schemes (episodic representations), which motivate and allow
correlations with the aimed professional knowledge and
 to initiate and foster the further development of episodic representations to
categorical and hypothetical representations by combining the teaching
experiences with externally provided or internally generated professional
knowledge.
3.2.1 Gaining teaching experiences which motivate and allow correlations with the
aimed professional knowledge (categorical representations)
This precondition is established, e.g. for teacher students studying the subject
environmental technology, through a comprehensive one-week project (about a
technical subject) in which the students take the part of learners and experience
problem-oriented and learner-centred lessons from this perspective. Many of them
gain this kind of learning experiences for the first time. These experiences from a
learner‘s perspective become a point of reference and orientation for the didactical
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Joint International IGIP-SEFI Annual Conference 2010, 19 - 22 September 2010, Trnava, Slovakia
studies. They ensure a correlation with the professional knowledge even if it is
provided in traditional lectures. Independently of this fundamental importance for
teacher training, the students acquire competences in environmental analysis within
the project [22].
3.2.2 Further development of the schemes in terms of acquiring categorical
representations and the transfer into mental models (hypothetical
representations)
The students have to gain repeated experiences with similar episodes for further
development of the schemes (in terms of acquiring categorical representations) or
the transfer into mental models (hypothetical representations). For that purpose, the
work with teaching episodes on two levels is applied intentionally in subject-related or
professional didactical seminars. The students receive tasks
 to analyse and evaluate teaching concepts as well as to develop alternatives
(=analysis of case studies in terms of Stated Problem Method), if applicable,
or
 for conceptual development and demonstration of teaching methods (=
development of new approaches for a case study).
Concerning the case study selection the students have to face, it has to be
considered that good didactical approaches are less reflected in depth than poor
ones. Good approaches always seem simple and easily accessible. They are
accepted as „standard.― For the teaching beginner may rise the impression that he
can manage this as well. In order to counteract this (mistaken) competence
sensation, the case studies have to be chosen and designed in such a way that
certain didactical aspects (connections between teacher activity and the initiated
learning process) are focused by means of mistakes in the teaching concept. In
doing so, a specific schemes or mental models development can be initiated and
assisted [23].
The conceptual planning and demonstration of new or alternative teaching concepts
(as case studies) serves to realise a productive application of the schemes/mental
models and by means of that to carry out their elaboration. This requires that the
students have already internalised these and see that their application for lesson
planning is useful. The teaching concepts are demonstrated in the seminars by role
playing. The learner roles are determined and personified by reflection of learner
types beforehand. Hence, the planning and performance of teaching sequences is
related to the pro-active and class-related diagnosis of learner performance and
behaviour. In principle, the evaluation of the teaching sequences starts with a
feedback on the learner roles‘ point of view. On this issue, two effects are expected:
students, who take the learner roles train their empathy as well as diagnostic
capabilities. Those who take the teacher role receive a feedback on their recipients‘
group view, whereby the initiated learning process comes to the fore as a result of
teacher activity.
All in all, firstly, the conscious perception of the shown teaching and learning
processes is fostered in such a manner. Secondly, the basically subjective theories
are made aware of by the explanations and optimisation of the acquired teaching and
learning processes in evaluation meetings and made accessible by the extension/
adaptation towards the aimed professional knowledge. Thus, internal and partly
unconsciously running cognitive processes of the teacher can be externalised and
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Joint International IGIP-SEFI Annual Conference 2010, 19 - 22 September 2010, Trnava, Slovakia
therewith visualised or made conscious, so that reflective learning is initiated [24].
The presented concepts were tested successfully in each case, whereas the effects
could be proven partially [20]. Based on these results, the concepts are not only
specified and evaluated onwards, but continuously developed into a situated learning
environment to foster the development of didactical professionalism as an overall
concept for learning on teaching episodes in a competence level system.
3.3 Evaluation of the Effectiveness of the Approach
Studies concerning the effectiveness of teacher training approaches are relatively
rare and allow barely clear and comprehensive statements. ([25], [26], [27]) The
stage of development of appropriate instruments has to be assessed likewise.
In fact, it was proven that the attention aspects of the participants changed during the
work on video-based teaching sequences5 [28]; the participants extended their
knowledge of didactical options [29] or had relevant knowledge of more uniform
criteria for teaching evaluation [30]. However, it could not be clarified to what extent
the probands could produce correlations between the visual teaching phenomenons
and didactical deep structures of the teaching and the learning process. Recording
only the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) [31] is insufficient because just its
application for the clarification, explanation and evaluation of teaching phenomenons
(reflection and assessment competence) is an indicator for the didactical knowledge
networking with teaching phenomenons, and therefore for its effectiveness6. Bischoff
developed a video test based on standard teaching situations which have be to
evaluated by the probands. It almost meets the goal. Here is recorded to what extent
the probands recognise difficult teaching sequences and may suggest a suitable
option. It is not recorded in what way the probands may be able to recognise and
explain the nature or the inner reasons of difficult teaching situations on the basis of
their professional knowledge [32].
Our effectiveness studies aim at the verification of the following hypotheses:
 The work on teaching situations (teaching reflection) has the potential to
acquire (effectively) professional knowledge as a basis for teaching
competence.
 The effectiveness of the acquired professional knowledge is connected to its
specific quality (kind of cognitive organisation and processing (elaboration)) (cf
[27]).
Therefore, knowledge is recorded which is used to describe, explain or justify as well
as optimise teaching situations (see 3.1). This is done by test procedures because
other evaluation types (self-assessment, observation and teaching or learner
performance evaluation) provide only little objective and hardly reliable statements
[33]. For the tests, the students have to face a specially chosen or designed teaching
situation (simulated, video-based, transcribed, recorded film sequence). Performance
and behaviour are recorded during the analysis, evaluation and optimisation or
creation of the teaching and learning process. These data can be correlated
additionally with data on subjective competence sensation (self-assessment). That
way Diedtemann [23] verified the effectiveness of the work on case study situations
for the professional knowledge development following this approach. Therefore, she
developed a categorisation system for qualitative content analysis of provided
teaching sequences (didactically relevant characteristics of teaching situations:
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Joint International IGIP-SEFI Annual Conference 2010, 19 - 22 September 2010, Trnava, Slovakia
learning content, didactical functions, methodological concept, teacher-studentinteraction, perception aiding resources, etc.) and analysed the students‘ evaluation
of these teaching sequences regarding the recognition of these characteristics.
Hübner [24] demonstrated the effectiveness of the didactical role play approach 7 in a
similar way. She recorded the students‘ remarks in the role play reflection phases
(referred to the realised roles teacher, learner or observer in each case) and
organised them by the teaching concept dimensions (teaching/learning steps, action
patterns, social methods, media) differentiated according to essential and superficial
aspects.
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1
also: Conceptual-Change and Cognitive-Apprenticeship-approaches
lesson reflection (particularly video-based) was already common as a research instrument for classroom research in Germany
in the 1980s and has partly regained its importance, e.g. TIMSS 1995 and follow-up studies
3
incl.: solving the data protection issues concerning the acting people in the teaching situations on video by anonymised
transcription as well as data protected production/recorded film sequences of selected teaching situations
4
study course chemical and environmental technology as well as the subject chemistry
5
from teaching performance to learning performance, from suggesting alternative concepts to understanding the observed
teacher performance
6
The effective knowledge is an expression of quality of the available professional knowledge that way whose inner organisation
and elaboration and therewith the accomplished competence level in the domain ―teaching.―
7
conceptual lesson planning and demonstration as productive application internalised schemesa/mental models and,
additionally, their elaboration in a case study
2