Academic Writing
英文寫作
http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm
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Table of Contents
1. Writing Paragraph
A. Introduction 5
B. Topic 6
C. Flow 8
D. Signaling 10
E. Cohesion 26
F. Exercises (1-17) 31
G. Test 58
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2. Rhetorical Functions
A. Writing Descriptions 61
B. Narrating and Reporting 67
C. Defining 74
D. Writing Instructions 75
E. Describing Function 80
F. Describing Processes 84
G. Classifying Categorizing 92
H. Giving Examples 95
I. Including Charts and Diagrams
J. Comparison and Contrast 107
K. Generalizing 110
L. Expressing Degrees of Certainty
M. Cause and Effect 113
N. Taking a Stance 117
O. Arguing and Discussing 119
P. Drawing Conclusions 124
Q. Online Exercises 126
60
97
112
3. Accuracy in EAP
A. Introduction (Pretest) 131
B. Improving Your Sentence Structure 139
C. Sentence Structure Exercises (Online) 149
D. Proof-reading Written English 151
E. Proof-reading: Verbs 153
F. Proof-reading: Prepositions 158
129
G. Proof-reading: Word Order 159
H. Proof-reading: Nouns 161
I. Proof-reading: Adjective/Adverb 162
J. Proof-reading: Articles 163
K. More about Articles 165
L. Proof-reading: Spelling 170
M. Proof-reading: Punctuation 174
N. Proof-reading: Correct Word or Form of Word
O. Online Exercises 184
P. Test 186
183
Writing paragraphs
Introduction | Topic | Flow | Signalling | Cohesion |
Exercises | Test
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Writing paragraphs
Introduction
Essays are divided into paragraphs. If your essay is one continuous piece of text, it will
be very difficult for any reader to follow your argument. Therefore essays need
paragraphs.
Essays are divided into paragraphs in a meaningful way. A paragraph is a group of
sentences that develop one topic or idea. The topic of one paragraph should follow
logically from the topic of the last paragraph and should lead on to the topic of the next
paragraph. The paragraphs have different functions, but all develop an idea - that is, they
add information, explanation, examples and illustrations to the central theme or idea until
the theme is fully developed.
Try these exercises: Exercise 1 & Exercise 2
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Continue to:
Topic
Flow
Signalling
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Writing paragraphs
Topic sentences
This main idea of each paragraph is usually expressed somewhere in the paragraph by one
sentence (the main or topic sentence). This sentence is usually found at the beginning of the
paragraph, but can come at the end or even in the middle of the paragraph. The rest of the
paragraph generally expands the theme contained in the main sentence, and each idea round
the main theme is supported by information and evidence (in the form of illustrations and
examples), and by argument.
Examples
The population as a whole was unevenly distributed. The north
was particularly thinly settled and the east densely populated, but
even in counties like Warwickshire where there were substantial
populations, some woodland areas were sparsely peopled. There
was already relatively dense settlement in the prime arable areas
of the country like Norfolk, Suffolk and Leicestershire. Modern
estimates of England's total population, extrapolated from
Domesday patterns, vary between 1 and 3 million.
(Asa Briggs, (1983). A social history of England, p. 58)
Atoms of all elements consist of a central nucleus surrounded by
a "cloud" containing one or more electrons. The electrons can be
thought of as occupying a series of well-defined shells. The
behaviour of a particular element depends largely on the number
of electrons in its outermost shells. Other factors, such as the
total number of electron shells, also play a part in determining
behaviour but it is the dominance of the outer electron
configuration that underlies the periodic law and justifies the
grouping of the elements into groups or families.
(The sciences: Michael Beazley Encyclopaedias (1980), p. 118)
In general, Victorian families were big. In 1851 their average
size was 4.7, roughly the same as it had been in the seventeenth
century, but the 11⁄2 million couples who married during the
1860s, which the historian G. M. Young described as the best
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decade in English history to have been brought up in, raised the
figure to 6.2. Only one out of eight families had one or two
children, while one in six had ten or more, so that the counsel
'little children should be seen and not heard' was prudent rather
than simply authoritarian advice.
(Asa Briggs, (1983). A social history of England, p. 244)
The spoken word (whether conversation or oratory or the coy
mixture of the two which is now familiar to us on television) is a
very different thing from the written word. What is effective or
allowable or desirable in the one may be quite the reverse in the
other, and the extempore speaker cannot correct himself by
revision as the writer can and should. It is therefore not fair to
take a report of a speech or of an oral statement and criticise it as
if it were a piece of considered writing.
(Ernest Gowers, (1973) The complete plain words, p. 26)
Identifying topic sentences
Look at the structure of the following paragraph.
Education
This is a period when education faces many disturbing
circumstances originating outside itself. Budgets have been
drastically cut throughout the country affecting every type of
education. Enrolments are dropping rapidly, because the children
of the post-World War II "baby boom" have now completed their
schooling, and we are feeling the full effect of the falling birth
rate. So there are fewer opportunities for new teachers, and the
average age of teachers is increasing.
(Carl Rogers, (1969), Freedom to learn, p. 11.)
Exercise 3, Exercise 4, Exercise 5, Exercise 6 & Exercise 7
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Writing paragraphs
Flow of information in paragraphs
通順 流暢 易讀
In order for a paragraph to be easy to read, the information in it must flow easily from one
sentence to the next. To do this it is important to structure your information clearly and
signal exactly what you want to say by the use of signalling words.
Information structure.
theme
rheme
Most sentences in English have two parts a theme(or topic) and a rheme (or comment)
(McCarthy, 1991, p. 55). The theme is what you are writing about - it is shared
information and it has been introduced to your reader. The rheme is what you are saying
about the theme - it is new information, what you want to tell your reader.
Look at the following sentences:
1. The M1 goes from London to Leeds.
2. The motorway from London to Leeds is called the M1.
The theme in sentence 1 is "the M1". The reader has been introduced to the M1 but
does not know where it goes and therefore needs to be told. In sentence 2, the theme is
"the motorway from London to Leeds". The reader knows there is a motorway from
London to Leeds but does not know what it is called.
In English the theme usually comes at the beginning of the sentence and the rheme at
the end. The decision about which part of the sentence to make the theme and which
part to make the rheme depends on the information that needs to be communicated. This
depends on the sentences that come before.
Look at the following short paragraphs:
3. I was born in Glasgow. Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland.
4. I was born in Glasgow. The largest city in Scotland is Glasgow.
All the sentences are grammatically correct but in example 4, the information to be
communicated, the rheme - the largest city in Scotland, is at the beginning of the
sentence. Example 3 is preferred in English.
There are two basic choices in organising information texts:
1. The rheme of one sentence becomes the theme of the next sentence.
Example
The complete electrical behaviour of any valve or transistor can be described
by stating the interrelation of the currents and the voltages between all the
electrodes. These relationships can conveniently be displayed graphically,
and the various curves are known as the ‘characteristics’ of the device. In
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principle, all the characteristics should be available to the designer proposing
to use the device in a circuit.
(W. P. Jolly, (1972). Electronics, p. 61)
2. The theme of one sentence is the same as the theme of the next sentence.
Example
Anthropology is the study of humankind, especially of Homo sapiens, the
biological species to which we human beings belong. It is the study of how
our species evolved from more primitive organisms; it is also the study of
how our species developed a mode of communication known as language and
a mode of social life known as culture. It is the study of how culture evolved
and diversified. And finally, it is the study of how culture, people, and nature
interact wherever human beings are found.
(Marvin Harris, (1975), Culture, people nature, p. 1)
A mixture of the two is also possible.
Exercise 8 & Exercise 9
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Writing paragraphs
Signalling
It is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear to the reader how various parts of
the paragraph are connected. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different
signalling words.
For example, if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is going to change, make
it clear.
The Bristol 167 was to be Britain's great new advance on
American types such as the Lockheed Constellation and Douglas
DC-6, which did not have the range to fly the Atlantic non-stop.
It was also to be the largest aircraft ever built in Britain.
However, even by the end of the war, the design had run into
serious difficulties.
If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another sentence, make it explicit.
While an earlier generation of writers had noted this feature of
the period, it was not until the recent work of Cairncross that the
significance of this outflow was realized. Partly this was because
the current account deficit appears much smaller in current
(1980s) data than it was thought to be by contemporaries.
If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so.
Marx referred throughout his work to other systems than the
capitalist system, especially those which he knew from the
history of Europe to have preceded capitalism; systems such as
feudalism, where the relation of production was characterized by
the personal relation of the feudal lord and his serf and a relation
of subordination which came from the lord's control of the land.
Similarly, Marx was interested in slavery and in the classical
Indian and Chinese social systems, or in those systems where the
ties of local community are all important.
If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.
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He is born into a family, he marries into a family, and he
becomes the husband and father of his own family. In addition,
he has a definite place of origin and more relatives than he
knows what to do with, and he receives a rudimentary education
at the Canadian Mission School.
If you are giving examples, do it explicitly.
This has sometimes led to disputes between religious and secular
clergy, between orders and bishops. For example, in the Northern
context, the previous bishop of Down and Connor, Dr Philbin,
refused for most of his period of leadership in Belfast to have
Jesuits visiting or residing in his diocese.
Signalling words
1. Time/order
at first, eventually, finally, first, firstly, in the end, in the first place, in
the second place, lastly, later, next, second, secondly, to begin with
2. Comparison/similar ideas
in comparison, in the same way, similarly
3. Contrast/opposite ideas
but, despite, in spite of, even so, however, in contrast, in spite of this,
nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, whereas, yet
4. Cause and effect
accordingly, as a consequence, as a result, because, because of this,
consequently, for this reason, hence, in consequence, in order to, owing
to this, since, so, so that, therefore, thus
5. Examples
for example, for instance, such as, thus, as follows
6 Generalisation
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as a rule, for the most part, generally, in general, normally, on the
whole, in most cases, usually
7. Stating the obvious
after all, as one might expect, clearly, it goes without saying, naturally,
obviously, of course, surely
8. Attitude
admittedly, certainly, fortunately, luckily, oddly enough, strangely
enough, undoubtedly, unfortunately
9. Summary/conclusion
finally, in brief, in conclusion, in short, overall, so, then, to conclude, to
sum up
10. Explanation/equivalence
in other words, namely, or rather, that is to say, this means, to be more
precise, to put it another way
11. Addition
apart from this, as well as, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover,
nor, not only...but also, too, what is more
12. Condition
in that case, then
13. Support
actually, as a matter of fact, in fact, indeed
14. Contradiction
actually, as a matter of fact, in fact
15. Emphasis
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chiefly, especially, in detail, in particular, mainly, notably, particularly
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Examples
1. Time/order
At first
At first, the freemen of both town and country had an
organization and a type of property which still retained
something of the communal as well as something of the
private, but in the town a radical transformation was
taking place.
Eventually
Finally
First
Firstly
Eventually, the group did manage to buy some land in a
village not far from London, but the project had to be
abandoned when the villagers zoned their land against
agricultural use.
Finally, there have been numerous women altogether
outside the profession, who were reformers dedicated to
creating alternatives.
First, I went to see the editor of the Dispatch.
There are two reasons.Firstly, I have no evidence whatever
that the original document has been destroyed.
In the end
In the end, several firms undertook penicillin production
on a massive scale, but hardly any ever came to Florey
himself for the clinical trials which he was desperate to
extend.
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In the first place/in the second place
Lastly
Later
Next
Second
If we try to analyse the conception of possession, we find
two elements. In the first place, it involves some actual
power of control over the thing possessed. In the second
place, it involves some intention to maintain that control
on the part of the possessor.
Lastly, we may notice that even a wrongful possession, if
continued for a certain length of time, matures into what
may be, for practical purposes, indistinguishable from
ownership.
Later, she went up to the office.
Next, I'd like to show you some pictures.
And second, this kind of policy does not help to create
jobs.
Secondly
He was first of all an absolute idiot, and secondly he was
pretty dishonest.
To begin with
To begin with, the ratio between attackers and defenders
was roughly the same.
2. Comparison
In comparison
The vast majority of social encounters are, in comparison,
mild and muted affairs.
In the same way
Every baby's face is different from every other's. In the
same way, every baby's pattern of development is different
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from every other's.
Similarly
You should notify any change of address to the Bonds and
Stock Office. Similarly, savings certificates should be reregistered with the Post Office.
3. Contrast
But----SVO, but SVO. SVO; SVO. SVO; however, SVO.
In 1950 oil supplied only about 10% of our total energy
consumption; but now it's up to about 40% and still rising.
Despite ......Despite + N/NPh, SVO.
Despite the difference in their ages, they were close friends.
Even so
This could lead you up some blind alleys. Even so, there is
no real cause for concern.
However
The more I talked the more silent Eliot became. However,
I left thinking that I had created quite an impression.
In spite of this
My father always had poor health. In spite of this, he was
always cheerful.
Nevertheless
He had not slept that night. Nevertheless, he led the rally
with his usual vigour.
On the contrary
I have never been an enemy of monarchy. On the contrary,
I consider monarchies essential for the well-being of new
nations.
On the other hand
Still
John had great difficulties playing cricket. But on the other
hand, he was an awfully good rugby player.
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He's treated you badly. Still, he's your brother and you
should help him.
Yet 1. (adv) The moon has not risen yet.
2. (conj) SVO, yet SVO.
Everything around him was blown to pieces, yet the
minister escaped without a scratch.
4. Cause/effect
Accordingly
She complained of stiffness in her joints. Accordingly, she
was admitted to hospital for further tests.
As a consequence
The red cross has not been allowed to inspect the camps,
and as a consequence(,) little is known about them.
The Cold War has ended. As a consequence, the two major
world powers have been able to reduce their arms budgets
dramatically.
As a result
Many roads are flooded. As a result, there are long delays.
Because
Because SVO, SVO. SVO because SVO.
Because these were the only films we'd seen of these
people, we got the impression that they did nothing else
but dance to classical music.
Because of this
The cost of running the club has increased. Because of
this, we must ask our members to contribute more each
week.
Consequently
Japan has a massive trade surplus with the rest of the
world. Consequently, it can afford to give more money to
the Third World.
For this reason
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The traffic was very heavy. For this reason he was late.
Hence (adv.): SVO. Hence SVO.
The computer has become smaller and cheaper and hence
more available to a greater number of people.
In consequence
The fastest these animals can run is about 65 kph, and in
consequence their hunting methods have to be very
efficient indeed.
In order that
They are learning English in order that they can study a
particular subject.
In order to
He had to hurry in order to reach the next place on this
schedule.
Owing to this
So
So that
The rain was terrible. Owing to this, the match was
cancelled.
He speaks very little English, so I talked to him through an
interpreter.
You take some of the honey and replace it with sugar so
that the bees have something to eat.
Therefore (adv.): SVO. Therefore, SVO.
I'm not a member of the Church of England myself.
Therefore, it would be rather impertinent of me to express
an opinion.
Thus (adv.): SVO. Thus SVO.
If I am to accept certain limitations on my freedom, I must
be assured that others are accepting the same restraints.
Thus an incomes policy has to be controlled if it is to be
effective.
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5. Example
For example
Many countries are threatened by earthquakes. For
example, Mexico and Japan have large ones this century.
For instance
Not all prices have increased so dramatically. Compare,
for instance, the price of oil in 1980 and the price now.
Such as
Thus
There are many reasons why the invasion failed, such as
the lack of proper food and the shortage of ammunition.
Plants as well as stones can be charms. The Guyana
Indians have many plant charms, each one helping to catch
a certain kind of animal. The leaves of the plant usually
look like the animal it is supposed to help to catch. Thus
the charm for catching deer has a leaf which looks like
deer horns.
6. Generalisation
As a rule
As a general rule, the less important tan executive is, the
more status-conscious he is likely to be.
For the most part
The New Guinea forest is, for the most part, dark and wet.
In general
The industrial processes, in general, are based on manmade processes.
Normally
Meetings are normally held three or four times a year.
On the whole
One or two were all right but on the whole I used to hate
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Usually
going to lectures.
She usually found it easy to go to sleep at night.
7. Stating the obvious
As one might expect
After all
Clearly
There are, as one might expect, several other methods for
carrying out the research.
They did not expect heavy losses in the air. After all they
had superb aircraft.
Clearly, there is no point in continuing this investigation
until we have more evidence.
It goes without saying
It goes without saying that I am grateful for all your help.
Naturally
Naturally, publishers are hesitant about committing large
sums of money to such a risky project.
Obviously
Obviously, I don't need to say how important this project
is.
Of course
Surely
There is of course an element of truth in this argument.
In defining an ideology, the claims which seek to
legitimate political and social authority are surely as
important as the notion of authority itself.
8. Attitude
Admittedly
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Admittedly, economists often disagree among each other.
Certainly
Ellie was certainly a student at the university but I'm not
sure about her brother.
Fortunately
Luckily
Fortunately such occurrences are fairly rare.
Luckily, Saturday was a fine day.
Oddly enough
Oddly enough, it was through him that I met Carson.
Strangely enough
It has, strangely enough, only recently been discovered.
Undoubtedly
Undoubtedly, many families are victims of bad housing.
Unfortunately
He couldn't wait to tell Judy. Unfortunately, she had
already left for work.
9. Summary/conclusion
Finally
In brief
Let's come finally to the question of pensions.
In brief then, do you two want to join me?
In conclusion
In short
In conclusion, let me suggest a number of practical
applications.
In short, the report says more money should be spent on
education.
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Overall
So
Then
Overall, imports account for half our stock.
So if a woman did leave the home, she was only supposed
to concern herself with matters pertaining to domestic life.
The importance of education, then, has been infinitely
greater than in previous centuries.
To conclude
To conclude, I'd like to say thank you to everyone who has
worked so hard to make this conference possible.
To sum up
To sum up, we cannot hope for greater success unless we
identify our needs clearly.
10. Explanation/equivalence
In other words
Namely
In other words, although the act of donating blood would
increase the chances of the donor dying, this increase was
small compared with the increase in the recipient's chances
of surviving.
He could not do any thing more than what he had
promised - namely, to look after Charlotte's estate.
... three famous physicists, namely, Simon, Kurte and
Mendelsohn.
Or rather
The account here offered is meant as a beginning of an
answer to that question. Or rather it contributes by setting
the question in a certain way.
That is to say
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The Romans left Britain in 410 AD - that is to say England
was a Roman dependency for nearly 500 years.
This means
With syphilis and gonorrhoea, the ages are also recorded,
and this means that an accurate map of disease prevalence
can be drawn and any trends or changes can be recognized
very quickly.
To be more precise
These reforms of Justinian in AD 529 proclaim that they
are "imposing a single nature" on trusts and legacies or, to
be more precise, imposing it on legatees and trust
beneficiaries.
To put it another way
He was being held there against his will. To put it another
way, he was a prisoner.
11. Addition
Also
Sugar is bad for your teeth. It can also contribute to heart
disease.
Apart from this
Eccleshall and Honderich find common cause in a desire
to establish the ideological nature of Conservative thought,
but apart from this their approaches to the study of
Conservativism are very different.
As well as
Marx and Engels, as well as many of their contemporaries,
believed that pastoralism predated agriculture.
Besides 1. (adv.) Besides, SVO 2. (prep) Besides + N, SVO.
Besides being good test cases, Locke obviously finds these
ideas intrinsically interesting too.
Furthermore
Computer chess games are still a bit expensive, but they
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are getting cheaper all the time. Furthermore their chessplaying strength is rising.
In addition
Our survey will produce the essential statistics. In
addition, it will provide information about people's
shopping habits.
Moreover
Nor
The drug has powerful side-effects. Moreover, it can be
addictive.
I could not afford to eat in restaurants. Nor could anyone I
knew.
I couldn't understand a word they said, nor could they
understand me.
Not only...but also
Too
Meissner was not only commander of the army but also a
close friend of the President.
Evans was not only our doctor. He was a friend too.
What is more
What is more, more machines will mean fewer jobs.
12. Condition
In that case
Then
Of course the experiment may fail and in that case we will
have to start again.
Sometimes the computer system breaks down. Then you'll
have to work on paper.
13. Support
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As a matter of fact
In fact
Indeed
The company is doing very well. As a matter of fact, we
have doubled our sales budget.
The winter of 1940 was extremely bad. In fact, most people
say it was the worst winter of their lives.
This act has failed to bring women's earnings up to the
same level. Indeed, the gulf is widening.
They continue to work throughout their short life. Indeed,
it is overwork which eventually kills them.
14. Contradiction
Actually
In fact
There are many stories which describe wolves as
dangerous, blood thirsty animals, but actually they prefer
to avoid human beings.
I thought he could speak the language fluently. In fact, that
wasn't the case at all.
15. Emphasis
Chiefly
How quickly you recover from an operation chiefly
depends on your general state of health.
The experiment was not a success, chiefly because the
machine tools were of poor quality.
Especially
They don't trust anyone, especially people in our position.
I'm not attracted to Sociology, especially the way it's
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taught here.
In detail
The implications of this theory are examined in detail in
chapter 12.
In particular
Mainly
Notably
In particular, he was criticised for pursuing a policy of
conciliation and reform.
The political group will have more power, mainly because
of their large numbers.
Some people, notably his business associates, had learned
to ignore his moods.
The organisation had many enemies, most notably among
feminists.
Particularly
Many animal sources of protein are also good sources of
iron. Particularly useful are liver, kidney, heart, beef,
sardines, pilchards (red fish generally), and shellfish,
including mussels and cockles.
Exercise 10, Exercise 11 & Exercise 12
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EAP Writing
Writing paragraphs
Cohesion 前後文的銜接性 (字詞使用的凝聚性)
It is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear to the reader how various parts of
the paragraph are connected. These connections can be made explicit grammatically and
lexically by the use of different reference words. Every text has a structure. It is not just a
random collection of sentences. The parts that make up the text are related in a meaningful
way to each other. In order to make these relationships in the text clear, it is necessary to
show how the sentences are related. Words like "it", "this", "that", "here", "there" etc. refer to
other parts of the text. You need to understand how to use these connections or links.
There are four main types of links used in academic texts: reference, ellipsis and substitution,
conjunction and lexical cohesion (Halliday and Hasan, 1976).
Reference代名詞指稱: (1. 前指 2. 近指 3. 意指 )
Certain items of language in English have the property of reference. That is, they do not have
meaning themselves, but they refer to something else for their meaning.
The scientific study of memory began in the early 1870s when a
German philosopher, Hermann Ebbinghaus, came up with the
revolutionary idea that memory could be studied experimentally.
In doing so he broke away from a 2000-year-old tradition that
firmly assigned the study of memory to the philosopher rather
than to the scientist. He argued that the philosophers had come
up with a wide range of possible interpretations of memory but
had produced no way of deciding which amongst these theories
offered the best explanation of memory. He aimed to collect
objective experimental evidence of the way in which memory
worked in the hope that this would allow him to choose between
the various theories.
In this text "he" and "him" refers to "Hermann Ebbinghaus". In order to create such a text, you
need to us these words correctly in the text.
Similarly,
These theories all stem from some underlying assumptions about
people. To a large extent unproven, they tend to represent the
dominant mood or climate of opinion at that time. Schein has
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classified them as follows, and it is interesting to note that the
categories follow each other in a sort of historical procession,
starting from the time of the industrial revolution.
Other words used in this way are "he", " him", "it", "this", "that", "these", "those", "here", "there"
etc.
Substitution and ellipsis 取代及省略
Substitution is the replacement of one item by another and ellipsis is the omission of the item. If
writers wish to avoid repeating a word, they can use substitution or ellipsis.
The scientific study of memory began in the early 1870s when a
German philosopher, Hermann Ebbinghaus, came up with the
revolutionary idea that memory could be studied experimentally.
In doing so he broke away from a 2000-year-old tradition that
firmly assigned the study of memory to the philosopher rather
than to the scientist. He argued that the philosophers had come
up with a wide range of possible interpretations of memory but
had produced no way of deciding which amongst these theories
offered the best explanation of memory. He aimed to collect
objective experimental evidence of the way in which memory
worked in the hope that this would allow him to choose between
the various theories.
Here, "so" means "studying memory experimentally". The writer has substituted "studying
memory experimentally" with "so". Other words that can be used are "one", "ones", "do", "so",
"not".
Ellipsis is substitution by zero.
Some of the water which falls as rain flows on the surface as
streams. Another part is evaporated. The remainder sinks into the
ground and is known as ground water.
"Another part" means "Another part of the water" and "The remainder" means "The remainder
of the water".
Similarly,
The 74 species of African antelope share certain basic features:
all are exclusively vegetarian and bear one large and precocious
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calf each year.
Conjunction 邏輯連接性 (Signalling Words"要用對"!!!!)
Conjunction shows meaningful relationships between clauses. It shows how what follows is
connected to what has gone before.
The whole Cabinet agreed that there should be a cut in the
amount that the unemployed were receiving; where they
disagreed was in whether this should include a cut in the
standard rate of benefit. The opposition parties, however, were
unwilling to accept any programme of economies which did not
involve a cut in the standard rate of benefit.
The word "however" shows that this statement is opposite to the ideas that have come before.
Other words used are "for example", "as a consequence of this", "firstly", " furthermore", "in
spite of this", etc.
Lexical cohesion 語詞銜接性
This is a way of achieving a cohesive effect by the use of particular vocabulary items. You can
refer to the same idea by using the same or different words.
Patients who repeatedly take overdoses pose considerable
management difficulties. The problem-orientated approach is not
usually effective with such patients. When a patient seems to be
developing a pattern of chronic repeats, it is recommended that
all staff engaged in his or her care meet to reconstruct each
attempt in order to determine whether there appears to be a
motive common to each act.
This first example illustrates an impulsive overdose taken by a
woman who had experienced a recent loss and had been unable
to discuss her problems with her family. During the relatively
short treatment, the therapist helped the patient to begin
discussing her feelings with her family.
Francis Bacon was born in London in 1561 and died there in
1626. His father was Sir Nicholas, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal
of Elizabeth I; his mother Anne Cooke, a well-educated and
pious Calvinist, daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke. His
contemporary biographer, William Rawley, remarked that, with
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such parents, Bacon had a flying start: he had "whatsoever nature
or breeding could put into him".
For cohesion to occur, it is not necessary for each word to refer to exactly the same item or
even be grammatically equivalent. All the words related to "debt" contribute to the cohesion.
In each of these cases the basic problem is the same: a will has
been made, and in it a debtor is left a legacy of liberatio from
what he owes the testator. The question is, if he has subsequently
borrowed more from the testator, up to what point he has been
released from his debts. It is best to begin with the second case.
Here there is a straightforward legacy to the debtor of a sum of
money and also of the amount of his debt to the testator. This is
followed by a clause in which there is a general damnatio and
also a general trust that the legacies in the will be paid. The
debtor goes on to borrow more money, and the question is
whether that is taken to be included in the legacy too. The
response is that since the words relate to the past, later debts are
not included.
Other commonly used are "repetition", "synonyms" and "near synonyms", "collocations", "super/
sub-ordinate relationships" (e.g. fruit/apple, animal/cat) etc.
Anaphoric nouns 向前指稱的名詞用法
Another useful way to show the connection between the ideas in a paragraph is what Gill
Francis calls anaphoric nouns. Look at the following text:
Moulds do not usually grow fast, and conditions had to be found
in which large quantities of Penicillium notatum could be
produced as quickly as they were wanted. The solution to this
problem was helped by N. G. Heatley, a young biochemist also
from Hopkins's laboratory in Cambridge, who had been
prevented by the outbreak of war from going to work in the
Carlsberg laboratories in Copenhagen.
The phrase "this problem" summarises the text in the first sentence and thus provides the
connection between the two sentences.
Reports of original work, headed often by the names of many
joint authors, became too full of jargon to be understood even by
trained scientists who were not working in the particular field.
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This situation persists today, though strong movements towards
interdisciplinary research help to avoid total fragmentation of
scientific understanding.
Again, the phrase "This situation" summarises the first sentence.
This led many later Greek thinkers to regard musical theory as a
branch of mathematics (together with geometry, arithmetic, and
astronomy it constituted what eventually came to be called the
quadrivium). This view, however, was not universally accepted,
the most influential of those who rejected it being Aristoxenus of
Tarentum (fourth century BC).
Again "This view" summarises the information in the first sentence, the view (opinion) that
music was a branch of mathematics.
Genetics deals with how genes are passed on from parents to
their offspring. A great deal is known about the mechanisms
governing this process.
The phrase "this process" summarises the first sentence.
The phrase:
This
noun
These
is very useful in showing the connection between sentences and therefore in making sure that
the paragraph flows. Other nouns typically used in this way are: "account, advice, answer,
argument, assertion, assumption, claim, comment, conclusion, criticism, description, difficultly,
discussion, distinction, emphasis, estimate, example, explanation, fall, finding, idea,
improvement, increase, observation, proof, proposal, reference, rejection, report, rise, situation,
suggestion, view, warning".
^
Exercises 13-17
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Writing paragraphs
Exercises
Writing Paragraphs
Paragraph
Organisation
Sentence Order
1. Identify paragraphs
Science & Technology Education
2. Paragraph order
Heat
Elementary School
3. Identify topic sentence
Parasites
General
4. Choosing topic
sentence
Welding
Biological and cultural
phenomena
5. Organising paragraphs
6. Writing topic sentences
7. Planning paragraphs
8. Identify information
flow
9. Information flow writing
10. Identify signalling
words
11. Classify signalling
words
12. Writing signalling
words
Internet privacy
Smallpox
The study of economics
Smoking
Alexander Fleming
The experience of birth
Rain cycle
Rivers, seas & oceans
General
Communication
Hemp
Christmas
14. Cohesion
Aggression
Time talks
Environment
Dangerous chemicals
Economic interests
Rain
13. Cohesion
John Donne
Mesozoic era
Population explosion
Savannas & grasslands
Standard of living
Threatened species
Waste
15. Reference
William Caxton 1
16. Reference
William Caxton 2
17. Anaphoric nouns
Epidemic on wheels
Science & Technology
Charles Babbage
Choosing paper
Digitising film
E-mail
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Writing paragraphs
Exercise 1
Divide the following text into paragraphs. Remember that each paragraph should
develop a particular theme.
How to stop yourself snoring.
Snoring is caused when the airway at the back of the nose and throat becomes
partially obstructed. This is usually due to the loosening of the surrounding
oropharyngeal muscles, but the reasons why this should occur are varied. The
most common are smoking, obesity and the consumption of relaxants such as
alcohol and sleeping pills. As with any common ailment, there are a host of
"miracle" cures advertised - but you should first try a few simple steps to see
if you can halt the snoring before adopting more drastic measures. Lifestyle
changes can be the most effective. If you are overweight, a loss of weight will
help to reduce the pressure on your neck. You should also stop smoking and
try not to drink alcohol at least four hours before you go to bed. Beyond this,
try to change your regular sleeping position. Raise the head of your bed with
a brick, or tie something uncomfortable into the back of your pyjamas to
encourage you to sleep on your side. Both of these will help to alter the angle
of your throat as you sleep, and may thus make breathing easier for you. It is
also important to keep your nasal passage clear and unblocked. Allergies,
colds and hay fever can temporarily cause you to snore; nasal decongestants
may help, but you are not advised to use such remedies for long periods.
Nasal strips, as worn by sportspeople, have been proven to reduce nasal
airway resistance by up to 30 per cent, so consider these as a long-term
alternative. If this fails, then you may wish to look at the varied snoring aids
that are on the market. They range from neck collars that stop your neck
tilting, through to mandibular-advancement devices (such as gumshields)
which reduce upper airway resistance, and tongue-retaining devices. You can
also buy essential-oil products that are added to warm water and infused or
consumed before bedtime. They claim to tone up your palate and unblock
your nasal passage. Finally, if your symptoms persist, visit your GP or contact
the British Snoring and Sleep Apnoea Association (01737 557 997) for
advice. If you do not, your partner might.
(Mark Irving, Esquire, March 1999)
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Writing paragraphs
Paragraph sequence
Exercise 2
Look at the following text about growing cotton in India. The paragraphs have not been
printed in the correct order. Arrange the paragraphs in the correct order. Remember that
the topic of one paragraph should follow logically from the topic of the last paragraph and
should lead on to the topic of the next paragraph.
Pesticide suicide
Most of the farmers are extremely poor. Attracted by cheap loans from
pesticides traders and the prospect of a quick buck, they borrowed heavily to
raise cotton on small plots of land.
According to the Ministry of Agriculture, the crop losses and destruction in
Andhra Pradesh arose from the repeated application of excessive amounts of
chemicals - a practice actively encouraged by pesticides traders.
The suicide of Samala Mallaiah in Nagara village grabbed media headlines.
He owned one acre of land, leased two more and grew cotton on all three.
After making a loss in the first year, he leased yet more land in an attempt to
recover. Confronted with falling prices, mounting debts and pest attacks, he
committed harakiri. ‘Cotton has given us shattered dreams,’ said one old
farmer in Nagara village.
As many as 60,000 small farmers in the region of Andhra Pradesh, southern
India, have taken to farming cotton instead of food crops. Some 20 of them
have recently committed suicide by eating lethal doses of pesticide.
Whitefly, boll weevils and caterpillars multiplied and destroyed their crops,
despite the constant application of pesticides. The average yield of cotton
fields in Andhra Pradesh fell by more than half in just one year. Now the
farmers are in no position to repay the loans or feed their families.
Nearly half the pesticides used in India go into protecting cotton, the most
important commercial crop in the country. However, pests have shown
increased immunity to a range of pesticides. Last year there were heavy crop
losses due to leaf-curl, which is caused by the dreaded whitefly. This
nondescript, milky-white fly sucks sap from the cotton leaves, making them
curl and dry up. The fly struck first in Pakistan and north-western India. Then
it turned south.
(New Internationalist, June 1998, p. 13)
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Writing paragraphs
Exercise 3
Identify the topic sentences in the following paragraphs.
Paragraph 1
The maintenance of order in prestate societies is rooted in a commonality of
material interests. The greater the amount of common interests, the less need
there is for law-and-order specialists. Among band-level cultures law and
order stem directly from the relations between people and the natural habitat
from which subsistence is derived. All adults usually have open access to this
habitat: the rivers, lakes, beaches, oceans; all the plants and animals; the soil
and the subsoil. In so far as these are basic to the extraction of life-sustaining
energy and materials they are communal "property."
(Marvin Harris, (1975), Culture, people nature, p. 356)
Paragraph 2
Though the United States has spent billions of dollars on foreign aid
programs, it has captured neither the affection nor esteem of the rest of the
world. In many countries today Americans are cordially disliked; in others
merely tolerated. The reasons for this sad state of affairs are many and varied,
and some of them are beyond the control of anything this country might do to
try to correct them. But harsh as it may seem to the ordinary citizen, filled as
he is with good intentions and natural generosity, much of the foreigners'
animosity has been generated by the way Americans behave.
(Edward Hall, (1973), The silent language, p. xiii)
Paragraph 3
Anthropology is the study of humankind, especially of Homo sapiens, the
biological species to which we human beings belong. It is the study of how
our species evolved from more primitive organisms; it is also the study of
how our species developed a mode of communication known as language and
a mode of social life known as culture. It is the study of how culture evolved
and diversified. And finally, it is the study of how culture, people, and nature
interact wherever human beings are found.
(Marvin Harris, (1975), Culture, People Nature, p. 1)
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Writing paragraphs
Exercise 4
Look at the following text about Leonardo da Vinci. The first sentence of each paragraph
has been removed. The sentences are listed in the box below the text. Match them with
the correct paragraphs.
The Genius of Leonardo.
1.
He was the illegitimate son of a Florentine lawyer and property owner. His
artistic bent obviously appeared at an early age for when he was 15 he was
apprenticed to the painter Verocchio. In 1472 he was accepted in the painters’
guild in Florence, where he remained until 1481.
2.
And among his early drawings were many sketches of mechanical apparatus
and weapons, evidence of his interest in, and knowledge of things
mechanical.
3.
His artistic achievements in Milan reached their peak with the mural ‘The
Last Supper’ completed in 1497.
4.
In the 1490s he began monumental treatises on painting, architecture, human
anatomy and mechanics. He set down his observations on these themes in
voluminous notes and sketches, which he would later assemble in his
notebooks. There remain of his notebooks a prodigious 7000 pages, all in
characteristic ‘mirror-writing’.
5.
He then went back to Milan and entered the service of the French King Louis
XII. Later he was to work in Rome with Raphael and Michelangelo on
designs for the new church of St Peter. In 1516 he settled in France, at Cloux,
near Amboise, where he died three years later.
6.
He was no mere theorist advancing fanciful ideas. He was a practical man,
who designed things that would work, because he could see how they would
work.
7.
There is no evidence that Leonardo actually built the machines and
mechanical devices he sketched and described. And in many cases their
practical importance remained unrealised and unrealisable for centuries.
There was neither the demand for them nor the technology.
(Pears Encyclopaedia, 1987, p. 342)
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Match the following sentences with the correct paragraphs.
a. Leonardo returned to Florence in 1499, where he painted that
most famous painting 'The Mona Lisa' (1503).
b. Between 1482 and 1499 he was employed in the service of
the Duke of Milan, to whom he was painter, sculptor, musician
and technical adviser on military and engineering matters.
c. In whatever subject he studied, Leonardo laid absolute faith
in the evidence of his eyes.
d. Leonardo da Vinci was born in 1452 in Vinci, a small village
in Tuscany.
e. And it is in his 'things', his machines, that we are interested in
this book.
f. By then Leonardo's expertise with paint brush and palette, pen
and pencil was already well advanced.
g. But his creative energies now were turning more and more to
scientific and literary pursuits.
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Writing paragraphs
Identifying and supporting topic sentences
Exercise 5
Put the following sentences in the correct order in produce well organised paragraphs.
Paragraph 1 - Click here for an interactive version of this exercise.
a. For a lightweight poster or sign, you can use either offset book stock or
cover stock.
b. You'll probably have to take your publication to a commercial printer,
however, since bristol won't feed through most desktop printers or copy
machines.
c. The type of paper you choose for a poster or a sign depends on how it will
be reproduced and how it is going to be used.
d. If you need to create a more durable poster or sign, or create packaging,
bristol stock is your best choice.
(Microsoft publisher CD deluxe companion, p. 185)
Paragraph 2 - Click here for an interactive version of this exercise.
a. It's rare, but not unheard of, for mail to go astray.
b. And many corporate mail servers have had growing pains, too,
experiencing holdups and the odd deletion.
c. On the whole though, you can assume email will arrive.
d. However during 1997, AOL and Microsoft Network - to name just the big
players - had severe mail outages resulting in the delay, and in some cases
loss, of email.
e. In general Internet email is considerably more reliable than the postal
service.
(The Internet and world wide web: The rough guide, (1997), p. 15)
Paragraph 3 - Click here for an interactive version of this exercise.
a. Time may indicate the importance of the occasion as well as on what level
an interaction between persons is to take place.
b. The same applies for calls after 11:00 P.M.
c. Different parts of the day, for example, are highly significant in certain
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contexts.
d. Our realisation that time talks is even reflected in such common
expressions as, "What time does the clock say?"
e. In the United States if you telephone someone very early in the morning,
while he is shaving or having breakfast, the time of the call usually signals a
matter of utmost importance and extreme urgency.
f. A call received during sleeping hours is apt to be taken as a matter of life
and death, hence the rude joke value of these calls among the young.
(Edward Hall, (1973), The silent language, p. 2)
Paragraph 4 - Click here for an interactive version of this exercise.
a. But modern anthropology stands opposed to the view that anatomy is
destiny.
b. Men are taller, heavier, and stronger than women; hence it is "natural" that
hunting and warfare should be male specialities.
c. Men have higher levels of testosterone; hence they are "naturally" more
aggressive, sexually and otherwise, and are "naturally" dominant over
women.
d. Since differences in the anatomy and physiology of human males and
females are so obvious it is easy to be misled into believing that sex-linked
roles and statuses are primarily biological rather than cultural phenomena.
e. As the underlying demographic, technological, economic, and ecological
conditions to which these sex-linked roles are adapted change, new cultural
definitions of sex-linked roles will emerge.
f. Moreover since women menstruate, become pregnant, and lactate, they
"naturally" are the ones to stay at home to care for and feed infants and
children.
g. Nor are women born with an innate tendency to care for infants and
children and to be sexually and politically subordinate.
h. Rather it has been the case that under a broad but finite set of cultural and
natural conditions certain sex-linked specialities have been selected for in a
large number of cultures.
i. Males are not born with an innate tendency to be hunters or warriors or to
be sexually and politically dominant over women.
(Marvin Harris, (1975). Culture, people, nature, p. 610)
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Writing paragraphs
Writing topic sentences
Exercise 6
Write the topic sentences for each of the following paragraphs.
Paragraph 1
Firstly, they live in or on a host, and do it harm. The depth to which they
penetrate the host varies, as indeed does the damage. Fleas, leeches and lice
live on the surface and cause superficial injury. Athlete's foot is a skin disease
caused by a fungus living in the surface layers of the foot. The parasite of
sleeping sickness is found in the host's blood wriggling between blood
corpuscles. Secondly, parasites show some simplification of body structures
when compared with free-living relatives. Sacculina (a relative of the crab)
shows loss of limbs and is reduced to a mass of reproductive tissue within the
abdomen of its crustacean host. Dodder, a plant parasite, lacks leaves, roots
and chlorophyll. Thirdly, although all organisms show adaptations to their
way of life, in the case of parasites they are often associated with a complex
physiological response, e.g. the ability to survive in regions almost devoid of
available oxygen, such as adult liver flukes, or the hooks and suckers of adult
tapeworm. Lastly, parasites exhibit a complex and efficient reproduction,
usually associated in some way with the physiology of the host, e.g. rabbit
fleas are stimulated by the level of sex hormone in their host.
(J. Hard, (1975). Biology, p. 57)
Paragraph 2
In 1920 an average of 2.75 pounds of waste were produced each day by each
individual in the United States. Today the quantity of waste produced is 53
pounds per person, and by 1980 it is estimated that this will rise to 8 pounds
per person. One year's rubbish from 10,000 people covers an acre of ground
to the depth of 10 feet. In one year Americans throw away 48 thousand
million cans, 26 thousand million bottles, 430 million tons of paper, 4 million
tons of plastic and 100 million tyres which weigh almost a million tons.
(John W Klotz, (1972). Ecology crisis, p. 197)
Paragraph 3
That it might be experienced in any other way seems unnatural and strange, a
feeling which is rarely modified even when we begin to discover how really
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differently it is handled by some other people. Within the West itself certain
cultures rank time much lower in over-all importance than we do. In Latin
America, for example, where time is treated rather cavalierly, one commonly
hears the expression, "Our time or your time?" "Hora americana, hora
mejicana?"
(Edward Hall, (1973), The silent language, p. 6)
Paragraph 4
From the late 1870s onwards, cheap American corn began to arrive in the
country in large quantities, along with refrigerated meat and fruit from
Australia and New Zealand, and in a period when both farmers and
businessmen were complaining of depression, standards of living rose higher
than they had ever done. The change began each day, as Victorian writers
frequently pointed out, with the food on the breakfast table - with eggs and
bacon as staple fare for the middle classes - and went on through tea, high or
low, to multi-course dinners or fish-and-chip suppers. The poor were eating
better as well as the rich. The annual per capita consumption of sugar, which
had increased from 18 lb. to 35 lb. between the Queen's accession and 1860,
rose to 54 lb. in 1870-99 and 85 lb. in 1900-10; that of tea, which along with
beer had now become a national drink, went up from 11⁄2 lb, first to 41⁄4 lb and
then to 6 lb.
(Asa Briggs, (1983). A social history of England, p. 246)
Paragraph 5
The first is the way in which living cells develop an energy currency. This,
like ordinary money, can be used to exchange one vital commodity for
another. The second is the use of substances called enzymes as go-betweens
to reduce the amount of energy needed to make many chemical reactions
essential to life take place fast enough.
(The sciences: Michael Beazley Encyclopaedias (1980), p. 136)
Paragraph 6
At first it was little more than a trickle. For a long time the Norman
conquerors did not mix much with their Saxon subjects. There are plenty of
indications of this; for the languages, too, moved side by side in parallel
channels. The custom of having one name for a live beast grazing in the field
and another for the same beast, when it is killed and cooked, is often
supposed to be due to our English squeamishness and hypocrisy. Whether or
not the survival of this custom through ten centuries is due to the national
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characteristics in question it would be hard to say, but they have certainly
nothing to do with its origin. That is a much more blame-less affair. For the
Saxon neatherd who had spent a hard day tending his oxen, sheep, calves and
swine, probably saw little enough of the beef, mutton, veal, pork and bacon,
which were gobbled at night by his Norman masters. There is something a
little pathetic, too, in the thought that the homely old word, stool, could be
used to express any kind of seat, however magnificent, until it was, so to
speak, hustled into the kitchen by the smart French chair. Even the polite,
however, continued to use the old word in the idiom ‘to fall between two
stools’.
Owen Barfield: History in English Words (Faber, 1954)
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Paragraphs
Writing paragraphs
Writing paragraphs
Exercise 7
The information contained within a paragraph is based on the topic sentence of a
paragraph. The topic sentence is generally the first sentence and expresses the main
idea to be developed within the paragraph.
a) Look at the topic sentences below and discuss what kinds of information you would
expect to follow.
1. The government of the United States of America consists of three main
branches.
2. The world-wide increase in road transport is a serious threat to the natural
environment.
3. Deforestation has a direct effect on food supplies.
4. Although development in the Third World is intended to increase selfreliance, the actual result is often increased dependence on the West.
5. There is a mistaken idea that, because of pocket calculators, children no
longer need to learn how to do basic arithmetic.
6. When it comes to the arts, there is a clear case for subsidy.
7. There are no grounds for subsidising the arts.
8. The British attitudes towards food are very different from the attitudes in
my own country.
9. My grandfather/grandmother is/was very easy/difficult to get on with.
10. There are no justifications for any country possessing nuclear weapons.
11. There are a number of reasons to justify a country possessing nuclear
weapons.
b) With two or three other students, discuss your answers.
c) Take one of the sentences a write a paragraph.
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Writing paragraphs
Exercise 8
Flow of information in paragraphs
Identify the ways of organising the information in the the following paragraphs.
The inventor of the diode valve was Fleming. He made use of the fact, first
noticed by Edison, that an electric current could be made to flow across the
empty space between the hot filament of an electric lamp and another metal
electrode placed inside the evacuated bulb. This effect depends upon the
thermionic emission of electrons from the heated metal filament.
(W. P. Jolly, (1972). Electronics, p. 61)
Hemp’s environmental credentials are indisputable. It grows better in organic
systems than in conventional ones. It smothers weeds and controls pests,
clearing the land for other crops. It improves the structure of the soil, with
strong roots to prevent erosion. If processed in the field, it returns nutrients to
the land and purports to ‘clean up’ soil contaminated with heavy metals. It is
one of a minority of textile-fibre crops that can be grown in temperate
climates. So why, given its potential, is so little hemp used today?
(New Internationalist, June 1998, p. 14)
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Writing paragraphs
Exercise 9
In the following paragraphs, the first and last sentences are correct. Rewrite the middle
sentences of to put the theme at the beginning and the rheme at the end of the
sentences.
Paragraph 1
Atoms of all elements consist of a central nucleus surrounded by a "cloud"
containing one or more electrons. We can think of these electrons as
occupying a series of well-defined shells. The number of electrons in its
outermost shells determines the behaviour of a particular element. Other
factors, such as the total number of electron shells, also play a part in
determining behaviour but it is the dominance of the outer electron
configuration that underlies the periodic law and justifies the grouping of the
elements into groups or families.
Paragraph 2
Every substance contains a certain amount of heat, even a relatively cold
substance such as ice. The substance's molecules are in continual motion and,
by this motion, possess kinetic energy which produces heat. The average
kinetic energy of the molecules are measured by temperature. Cooling to the
point at which molecular movement ceases completely should thus be
possible. Scientists are very interested in this point, absolute zero, but it is in
practice unattainable. At temperatures close to absolute zero some materials
exhibit remarkable properties, such as superconductivity and superfluidity.
Paragraph 3
Nauru is so small that the plane lands in what is best described as the capital's
main street. To stop cars when planes are landing the seaward side of the
runway has traffic lights at each end. Well-fed and brightly clothed Naurans
cowd the tiny air terminal with their smart cars. The only hotel, the luxurious
Menen, is a 10-minute drive half way round the island and is where new
arrivals are driven off in Japanese minibuses. The well-paved road passes
rows of neat, modern houses, set among the trees.
(David Lascelles, The Financial Times)
Paragraph 4
The most striking example of value rigidity I can think of is the old south
Indian Monkey Trap, which depends on value rigidity for its effectiveness. A
hollowed-out coconut chained to a stake makes the trap. A monkey can put its
hand though a small hole in the coconut and grab some rice inside. The
monkey can put its hand into the hole but cannot take its fist out with rice in
it. The monkey's value rigidity traps it when it reaches in. The rice cannot be
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revalued. He cannot see that freedom without rice is more valuable than
capture with it.
(Robert Pirsig, Zen and the art of motorcycle maintenance)
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Writing paragraphs
Exercise 10
Identify the signalling words in the following paragraph.
Because language plays such an important role in teaching, Bellack and his
colleagues chose to examine in some detail the "language game" in the
classroom. They contended that "teaching is similar to most games in at least
two respects. It is a form of social activity in which the players (teachers and
students) fill different but complementary roles. Furthermore, teaching is
governed by certain ground rules that guide the actions or moves made by the
participants" (p. 4). By studying the language game, then, Bellack et al.
intended to identify the various types of verbal moves made by teachers and
students and the rules they followed in making these moves. As a result, they
could investigate the functions these verbal moves served and examine the
meanings that were being communicated.
(Lorin Anderson & Robert Burns (1989) Research in classrooms, p. 278)
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Writing paragraphs
Exercise 11
Identify and classify the signalling words in the following paragraph.
To begin with, it is necessary to consider the long-term implications of the
decision to increase our dependence on permanent staff in our restaurants. For
example, let us say we do go ahead. In this case, our reliance on hourly-paid
staff will decrease. As a result, costs will reduce, as permanent staff are
cheaper than hourly-paid staff. In fact, it is not necessarily the case, especially
as there is no way of knowing what the relative costs of hourly-paid staff and
permanent staff will be in ten years' time. However, as a rule hourly
permanent staff are more reliable than full-time staff and this is a genuine
advantage. As a consequence of these two advantages, permanent staff would
seem to be a better option. In other words, they are cheaper and more reliable
so they are better. In that case, it is not necessary to hesitate. Naturally,
nothing is so simple. In short, cost is an unknown factor and the most
economical choice is not known.
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Writing paragraphs
Exercise 12
In the following article on Nuclear Hazards the signalling words and phrases are missing.
Replace them and check your answers.
There are three separate sources of hazard related to the use of nuclear
reactions to supply us with energy. __________, the radioactive material
must travel from its place of manufacture to the power station. __________
the power stations themselves are solidly built, the containers used for the
transport of the material are not. __________, there are normally only two
methods of transport available, __________ road or rail, and both of these
involve close contact with the general public, __________ the routes are
bound to pass near, or even through, heavily populated areas. __________,
there is the problem of waste. All nuclear power stations produce wastes
which in most cases will remain radioactive for thousands of years. It is
impossible to de-activate these wastes, and __________ they must be stored
in one of the ingenious but cumbersome ways that scientists have invented.
__________ they may be buried under the ground, dropped into disused
mineshafts, or sunk in the sea. __________ these methods do not solve the
problem; they merely store it, __________ an earthquake could crack open
the containers like nuts. __________ there is the problem of accidental
exposure due to a leak or an explosion at the power station. As with the other
two hazards, this is extremely unlikely and __________ does not provide a
serious objection to the nuclear programme, __________ it can happen, as the
inhabitants of Harrisburg will tell you. Separately, and during short periods,
these three types of risk are no great cause for concern. Taken together,
__________, and especially over much longer periods, the probability of a
disaster is extremely high.
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Writing paragraphs
Exercise 13: Cohesion.
Reference
Identify the references in the following texts:
Exercise a
Every organization, as soon as it gets to any size (perhaps 1,000 people),
begins to feel a need to systematize its management of human assets. Perhaps
the pay scales have got way out of line, with apparently similar-level jobs
paying very different amounts; perhaps there is a feeling that there are a lot of
neglected skills in the organization that other departments could utilize if they
were aware that they existed. Perhaps individuals have complained that they
don't know where they stand or what their future is; perhaps the unions have
requested standardized benefits and procedures. Whatever the historical
origins, some kind of central organization, normally named a personnel
department, is formed to put some system into the haphazardry. The systems
that they adopt are often modelled on the world of production, because that is
the world with the best potential for order and system.
Exercise b
We all tend to complain about our memories. Despite the elegance of the
human memory system, it is not infallible, and we have to learn to live with
its fallibility. It seems to be socially much more acceptable to complain of a
poor memory, and it is somehow much more acceptable to blame a social
lapse on 'a terrible memory', than to attribute it to stupidity or insensitivity.
But how much do we know about our own memories? Obviously we need to
remember our memory lapses in order to know just how bad our memories
are. Indeed one of the most amnesic patients I have ever tested was a lady
suffering from Korsakoff's syndrome, memory loss following chronic
alcoholism. The test involved presenting her with lists of words; after each
list she would comment with surprise on her inability to recall the words,
saying: 'I pride myself on my memory!' She appeared to have forgotten just
how bad her memory was'.
Substitution and ellipsis
Identify examples of substitution and ellipsis in this text:
Exercise c
The human memory system is remarkably efficient, but it is of course
extremely fallible. That being so, it makes sense to take full advantage of
memory aids to minimize the disruption caused by such lapses. If external
aids are used, it is sensible to use them consistently and systematically always put appointments in your diary, always add wanted items to a
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shopping list, and so on. If you use internal aids such as mnemonics, you
must be prepared to invest a reasonable amount of time in mastering them and
practising them. Mnemonics are like tools and cannot be used until forged.
Overall, however, as William James pointed out (the italics are mine): 'Of two
men with the same outward experiences and the same amount of mere native
tenacity, the one who thinks over his experiences most and weaves them into
systematic relations with each other will be the one with the best memory.'
Exercise d
This conflict between tariff reformers and free traders was to lead to the
"agreement to differ" convention in January 1932, and the resignation of the
Liberals from the government in September 1932; but, until they resigned, the
National Government was a genuine coalition in the sense in which that term
is used on the continent: a government comprising independent yet
conflicting elements allied together, a government within which party conflict
was not superseded but rather contained - in short, a power-sharing
government, albeit a seriously unbalanced one.
Exercise e
The number of different words relating to 'camel' is said to be about six
thousand. There are terms to refer to riding camels, milk camels and slaughter
camels; other terms to indicate the pedigree and geographical origin of the
camel; and still others to differentiate camels in different stages of pregnancy
and to specify in-numerable other characteristics important to a people so
dependent upon camels in their daily life (Thomas, 1937)
Exercise f
There were, broadly, two interrelated reasons for this, the first relating to
Britain's economic and Imperial difficulties, the second to the internal
dissension in all three parties.
Conjunction
Identify examples of conjunction in the following texts:
Exercise g
These two forms of dissent coalesced in the demand for a stronger approach
to the Tory nostrum of tariff reform. In addition, trouble threatened from the
mercurial figure of Winston Churchill, who had resigned from the Shadow
Cabinet in January 1931 in protest at Baldwin's acceptance of eventual selfgovernment for India.
Exercise h
These two sets of rules, though distinct, must not be looked upon as two coordinate and independent systems. On the contrary, the rules of Equity are
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only a sort of supplement or appendix to the Common Law; they assume its
existence but they add something further.
Lexical cohesion
Identify examples of lexical cohesion in the following texts:
Exercise i
The clamour of complaint about teaching in higher education and, more
especially, about teaching methods in universities and technical colleges,
serves to direct attention away from the important reorientation which has
recently begun. The complaints, of course, are not unjustified. In dealing
piece-meal with problems arising from rapidly developing subject matter,
many teachers have allowed courses to become over-crowded, or too
specialized, or they have presented students with a number of apparently
unrelated courses failing to stress common principles. Many, again, have not
developed new teaching methods to deal adequately with larger numbers of
students, and the new audio-visual techniques tend to remain in the province
of relatively few enthusiasts despite their great potential for class and
individual teaching.
Exercise j
When we look closely at a human face we are aware of many expressive
details - the lines of the forehead, the wideness of the eyes, the curve of the
lips, the jut of the chin. These elements combine to present us with a total
facial expression which we use to interpret the mood of our companion. But
we all know that people can 'put on a happy face' or deliberately adopt a sad
face without feeling either happy or sad. Faces can lie, and sometimes can lie
so well that it becomes hard to read the true emotions of their owners. But
there is at least one facial signal that cannot easily be 'put on'. It is a small
signal, and rather a subtle one, but because it tells the truth it is of special
interest. It comes from the pupils and has to do with their size in relation to
the amount of light that is falling upon them.
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Writing paragraphs: Cohesion
Exercise 14.
Reference
Identify the references in the following text:
The Troubles of shopping in Russia
A large crowd gathered outside a photographic studio in Arbat Street, one of
the busiest shopping streets in Moscow, recently. There was no policeman
within sight and the crowd was blocking the pavement. The centre of
attraction - and amusement - was a fairly well-dressed man, perhaps some
official, who was waving his arm out of the ventilation window of the studio
and begging to be allowed out. The woman in charge of the studio was
standing outside and arguing with him. The man had apparently arrived just
when the studio was about to close for lunch and insisted upon taking
delivery of some prints which had been promised to him. He refused to wait
so the staff had locked the shop and gone away for lunch. The incident was an
extreme example of the common attitude in service industries in the Soviet
Union generally, and especially in Moscow. Shop assistants do not consider
the customer as a valuable client but as a nuisance of some kind who has to
be treated with little ceremony and without concern for his requirements.
For nearly a decade, the Soviet authorities have been trying to improve the
service facilities. More shops are being opened, more restaurants are being
established and the press frequently runs campaigns urging better service in
shops and places of entertainment. It is all to no avail. The main reason for
this is shortage of staff. Young people are more reluctant to make a career in
shops, restaurants and other such establishments. Older staff are gradually
retiring and this leaves a big gap. It is not at all unusual to see part of a
restaurant or a shop roped off because there is nobody available to serve.
Sometimes, establishments have been known to be closed for several days
because of this.
One reason for the unpopularity of jobs in the service industries is their low
prestige. Soviet papers and journals have reported that people generally
consider most shop assistants to be dishonest and this conviction remains
unshakeable. Several directors of business establishments, for instance, who
are loudest in complaining about shortage of labour, are also equally
vehement that they will not let their children have anything to do with trade.
The greatest irritant for the people is not the shortage of goods but the time
consumed in hunting for them and queuing up to buy them. This naturally
causes ill-feeling between the shoppers and the assistants behind the counters,
though often it may not be the fault of the assistants at all. This too, damages
hopes of attracting new recruits. Many educated youngsters would be
ashamed to have to behave in such a negative way.
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Rules and regulations laid down by the shop managers often have little regard
for logic or convenience. An irate Soviet journalist recently told of his
experiences when trying to have an electric shaver repaired. Outside a repair
shop he saw a notice: ‘Repairs done within 45 minutes.’ After queuing for 45
minutes he was asked what brand of shaver he owned. He identified it and
was told that the shop only mended shavers made in a particular factory and
he would have to go to another shop, four miles away. When he complained,
the red-faced girl behind the counter could only tell him miserably that those
were her instructions.
All organisations connected with youth, particularly the Young Communist
League (Komsomo1), have been instructed to help in the campaign for better
recruitment to service industries. The Komsomol provides a nicely-printed
application form which is given to anyone asking for a job. But one district
head of a distribution organisation claimed that in the last in years only one
person had come to him with this form. ‘We do not need fancy paper. We do
need people!’ he said. More and more people are arguing that the only way to
solve the problem is to introduce mechanisation. In grocery stores, for
instance, the work load could be made easier with mechanical devices to
move sacks and heavy packages.
The shortages of workers are bringing unfortunate consequences in other
areas. Minor rackets flourish. Only a few days ago, Pravda, the Communist
Party newspaper, carried a long humorous feature about a plumber who earns
a lot of extra money on the side and gets gloriously drunk every night. He is
nominally in charge of looking after 300 flats and is paid for it. But whenever
he has a repair job to do, he manages to screw some more money from the flat
dwellers, pretending that spare parts are required. Complaints against him
have no effect because the housing board responsible is afraid that they will
be unable to get a replacement. In a few years’ time, things could be even
worse if the supply of recruits to these jobs dries up altogether.
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Cohesion: Reference
Exercise 15
Gap-fill exercise
Read the text and fill in the gaps to make the reference clear. Then press
"Check" to check your answers. Use the "Hint" button to get a free letter if an
answer is giving you trouble. Note that you will lose points if you do!
The Liberals, also, by August 1931 were beginning to crumble. Lloyd George's
attempt to wrest the initiative for
party by a bold espousal of
Keynesian economics had failed in the 1929 general election.
strategy of seeking an accommodation with Labour was bitterly opposed by
many Liberals. In March 1931, Sir John Simon spoke of socialism as "a
poisonous doctrine" and declared that
would not close his mind
to tariffs as a method of dealing with the economic crisis. In June 1931, Simon
and two other prominent Liberals resigned the parliamentary whip. It was
generally believed that
were proposing to seek an electoral pact
with the Conservatives, so as to ensure that
would hold their
seats against what was expected to be a Conservative landslide at the next
general election.
Check
Hint
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Cohesion: Reference
Exercise 16
Gap-fill exercise
Read the text and fill in the gaps to make the reference clear. Then press
"Check" to check your answers. Use the "Hint" button to get a free letter if an
answer is giving you trouble. Note that you will lose points if you do!
So in the fall of 1940 I enrolled in a two year postgraduate course at the
University of Toronto's School of Social Work. It was then directed by Agnes
MacGregor, a woman in
late sixties, who was one of the
pioneers of Canadian Social Work.
had the manner of a
conventional Lady Bountiful, but the manner was deceptive. As I look back I
believe
delicate ladylike manner must have concealed a secret
rebelliousness and a timid radicalism.
moved very far from
worker, and
was a woman who had
own background in order to become a social
had probably had to struggle through many
ambivalences to accept the differences in others.
Check
Hint
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Writing paragraphs: Anaphoric nouns
Exercise 17.
Anaphoric nouns
Identify the references in the following texts:
Exercise a
In the same year the Swiss scholar, J. J. Bachofen, published Das
Mutterrecht, (Mother Right), a book showing that matriliny, the tracing of
descent through women, and matriarchy, the dominance of women in society,
as well as the cult of female goddesses, preceded the patriarchy and the
patriliny we find in Biblical and Classical societies. This idea was accepted
with varying degrees of caution by many nineteenth-century anthropologists
and ultimately was wholly endorsed by Engels, who, in the preface to the
fourth edition of The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State ,
gave warm praise to Bachofen.
Exercise b
Should the qualified defence of diminished responsibility be retained? In
answering this question, one has to contend with two muddles in English
law, a general muddle about mental disorder and criminal responsibility, and
a specific muddle about murder and manslaughter.
Exercise c
Time for Christians began with the Creation and would end with Christ's
Second Coming. World history was bounded by these two events. The spread
of this belief marks the divide between the mental outlook of Classical
antiquity and that of the Middle Ages.
Exercise d
This will not be the case if, for example, Uruguay could have supplied the
parties with a commodity that, though useful to both, was in short supply in
one country but not in the other. Should we then say that Uruguay is not
neutral unless it starts providing the country suffering from the shortage in
that commodity? If by not helping it Uruguay is hindering it, then this
conclusion is forced on us.
Exercise e
In the same article, Crutzen stresses that chemists used to believe biomass
fires produced some 2.5 billion tons of carbon annually, but have now revised
this estimate upwards to 3 billion tons.
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Exercise f
We have already seen that subjects given no pre-training do less well in the
test phase than those given initial discrimination training and we have
acknowledged that unambiguous interpretation of this difference is
impossible.
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Writing paragraphs: Test
1. Topic Sentences
Read the following text. Identify the topic sentence in each paragraph. Show your
answers to someone. If you are in one of my classes, e-mail the answers to me. Click
here for the text.
2. Topic Sentences
Go to your library and find an interesting textbook. Copy out some of the paragraphs and
identify the topic sentences. Show your answers to someone. If you are in one of my
classes, e-mail the paragraphs and the answers to me.
3. Flow of information in paragraphs
Read the following text. Draw a diagram to illustrate the flow of information in the
paragraphs. Show your answers to someone. If you are in one of my classes, e-mail the
paragraphs and your diagrams to me.
Nature of gases, liquids and solids
Gases are made up of particles which move with rapid random motion. The size of the
particles and any intermolecular forces can be ignored unless the particles are close
together at high pressure or at low temperature.
In liquids, the particles are in a state of order intermediate between that of a gas and
that of a solid. At any instant in time the arrangement of particles resembles a
somewhat disordered solid. Over a period of time the disordered regions allow all the
particles in the liquid to move through the liquid. The particles are held together by
forces similar to those in a solid.
In solids, the particles remain in fixed positions, about which they can vibrate. The
forces which hold the particles together can be ionic attractions, covalent bonds,
metallic bonds, hydrogen bonds, dipole-dipole forces or van der Waals' forces. Heat
energy is required to change a solid into a liquid at its melting point. The energy is
used to loosen the forces which hold the particles together. This heat energy is called
the enthalpy of fusion.
More energy is needed to change phase from a liquid into a gas than to change from a
solid into a liquid. The energy is used to overcome the forces which hold the particles
together so that the particles can be completely separated. This heat energy is called
the enthalpy of vaporisation.
4. Flow of information in paragraphs
Go to your library and find an interesting textbook. Copy out some of the paragraphs and
draw a diagram to illustrate the flow of information in the paragraphs. Show your answers
to someone. If you are in one of my classes, e-mail the paragraphs and your diagrams to
me.
5. Signalling
Read the following text. Identify the signalling words in the paragraphs. Show your
answers to someone. If you are in one of my classes, e-mail the words to me. Click here
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for the text.
6. Signalling
Go to your library and find an interesting textbook. Copy out some of the paragraphs and
identify the signalling words in the paragraphs. Show your answers to someone. If you
are in one of my classes, e-mail the paragraphs to me, showing the signalling words.
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing
Rhetorical functions in academic writing
Examples of texts and language. A good source of language is Leech & Svartvik (1975).
Typical rhetorical functions used in academic writing, based on: Werlich (1976) and Lackstrom,
Selinker & Trimble (1973), are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
Describing objects, location, structure and direction
Reporting and narrating
Defining
Writing instructions
Describing function
Describing processes, developments and operations
Classifying / categorising
Giving examples
Including tables and charts
Comparing and contrasting: similarities and differences
Generalising
Expressing degrees of certainty
Expressing reasons and explanations / cause and effect
Taking a stance
Arguing and discussing
Writing critically
Reflective writing
Writing introductions
Writing research methods
Writing research results
Writing research discussions
Drawing conclusions
Writing research abstracts
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Writing descriptions
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Writing
descriptions
Examples
Read the following descriptions:
An octopus appears to be just a huge head with eight long, fearful arms. Its head is soft
and rubberlike. Its eyes stick out on stalks so that it can see in all directions. Its mouth
is on the underside of its body and has powerful jaws shaped like a beak. The long
arms, or tentacles, have double rows of suckers. These can fasten onto objects with
such suction that they cannot be pulled off.
The liver is the largest organ in the body. It weighs a little more than three pounds in
an adult. It is wedge-shaped and is situated under the diaphragm, mostly on the left
side of the body, where it is protected by the lower ribs. Somewhat like an intricate
chemical factory, the liver takes the particles of glucose (which come from digested
starches and sugars) and changes them into another kind of carbohydrate called
glycogen , which it then stores. When the body needs sugar, the liver turns the
glycogen into glucose again and sends it to the body tissues through the bloodstream.
The L�clanch�cell consists of a leakproof jacket containing a porous pot in which
there is a paste of manganese dioxide and carbon granules surrounding a carbon rod .
The top can be sealed with pitch. A zinc rod stands in a solution of ammonium
chloride, and is connected to the carbon rod via a circuit and a light bulb . The zinc
dissolves in the solution, setting up an electromotive force. The ammonium ions
migrate to the carbon anode and form ammonia (which dissolves in the water), and
hydrogen ions. Torch dry batteries and use wet paste cells of the L�clanch�type.
A 12-volt car battery has six two-volt cells connected in series. The cells have anodes
of brown lead oxide and cathodes of porous grey lead immersed in sulphuric acid. An
electric current flows if the electrodes are connected through a conductor. When the
battery supplies current the sulphuric acid converts the anode to lead sulphate, thus
reducing the strength of the acid. This process is reversed during recharging. Each cell
of the battery is made of several anodes and cathodes separated by porous insulators.
The cells are housed in a hard rubber case and the various cells are interconnected with
lead bars.
Language
Position, weight, structure, colour, composition, size, shape, function
Position
adjacent to
alongside
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below
beyond
facing (diagonally)
parallel to
underneath
opposite
in the middle of
on the right of
on the left of
near
close to
A is touching
behind
in front of
under
on top of
above
below
level with
diagonally above
vertically below
between
equidistant from
B
B and C.
Structure
nailed
screwed
fixed
fastened
is linked
welded
tied
connected
attached
X consists
contains
includes
to Y by Z
of
Y and Z
held in place
secured
by
supported
Y
is suspended
joined
to
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Writing descriptions
mounted
placed
pivoted
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on
Colour
dark
light
pale
is
X
bright
dull
green.
blue.
red.
yellow.
Composition
metal.
steel.
alluminium.
an alloy of A and B.
cloth.
X is made of
silk.
china.
wood.
plastic.
glass.
Size and weight
long
X is 6 cm high
wide
length
height
6 cm
in width
X is
diameter
6 Kg
weight
length
height
6 cm
of X is
The width
diameter
weight
6 Kg.
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length
width
6 cm.
of
X has a height
diameter
weight
6 Kg.
X weighs 10 Kg
Shape
square
round
rectangular
triangular
semi-circular
conical
in shape
X is
spherical
hexagonal
octagonal
oval
circular
irregular
square
circle
rectangle
X is is shaped like a triangle
semi-circle
hexagon
octagon
cubical
cylindrical
pyramidal
spherical
in shape
X is
tubular
spiral
hemispherical
conical
bulbous
tapering
concave
convex
in shape.
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diamond-shaped
kidney-shaped
U-shaped
star-shaped
bell-shaped
dome-shaped
.
X is
mushroom-shaped
X-shaped
crescent-shaped
egg-shaped
pear-shaped
Y-shaped
Function
function
measure the temperature.
thermometer
purpose
is to
of the
The
hold the beaker.
tripod
aim
objective
The
measuring the temperature.
thermometer
is used for
holding the beaker,
tripod
Properties
light
tough
soft
elastic
malleable
flexible
soluble
X is
a good conductor of electricity/heat
corrosion resistant
combustible
transparent
smooth
heavy
brittle
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hard
plastic
ductile
rigid
insoluble
a bad conductor of electricity/heat
not corrosion resistant
non-combustible
opaque
rough
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Narrating and reporting
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Narrating
and reporting
Examples
Read the following texts:
Example 1
The Evolution of Sound Recording
The history of recording sound stretches back to 1857 when Leon Scott, intent on
obtaining a picture of what sound waves looked like, devised a method for recording
the vibrations in the air. His device, later patented as the Phonoautograph, used a large
parabolic horn to channel incoming sound waves to a membrane covering the narrow
end of the horn. A bristle attached to the membrane by a lever traced a path in a
revolving cylinder coated with lamp-black. As the membrane vibrated in response to
sound waves, the bristle etched a pattern in the lamp-black that corresponded to the
frequency of the sound. Although this was useful for gaining a view of what different
sound waves looked like, the device could only record incoming waves - there was no
provision for playing back the sound wave traces.
After studying the Phonoautograph, Thomas Edison modified the basic design in 1877
so that it would be capable of playing back sounds. While the sound quality was rather
pitiful, the fact that this feat could actually be accomplished encouraged others to
continue development. Edison’s device utilized a grooved metal cylinder encased in
tinfoil. A horn concentrated the sound waves when someone spoke into it. At the apex
of the horn, a thin membrane attached to a needle transmitted the vibrations - the
resulting waves were scored into the tinfoil as the needle moved up and down, creating
a path of varying depth. The cylinder in this device was rotated by means of a hand
crank. Once the sound was recorded, the needle was returned to the beginning of the
groove. Turning the hand crank caused the vibrations captured in tinfoil to travel from
the needle to the diaphragm and a crude replica of the human voice emerged from the
horn.
Alexander Graham Bell took this invention a step further by replacing the foil-covered
cylinder with one coated with wax. The needle cut a pattern that varied in depth onto
the wax surface. For recording, Bell relied on a very sharp stylus and firm membrane.
During playback, he switched to a dull stylus and a looser membrane so as not to
destroy the original impressions. To reuse the cylinder, the wax could be shaved and
smoothed. For the first time, sound recording could be accomplished on removable and
reusable media. The process was further improved with the addition of an electric
motor to replace the hand crank, so that recording and playback took place at uniform
speeds. Recorded cylinders were then metal-plated to create a mould so that a number
of copies of the original could be produced.
The technology spawned a mini-industry. Phonograph parlours sprang up around the
country in the late 1800s where amazed visitors paid a nickel to hear voices muttering
from these primitive playback devices.
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The recording cylinder was replaced by a disc in 1888 when Emile Berliner devised a
variation of this basic recording technique. Berliner’s gramophone used a stylus
travelling within a spiral groove on a flat disc. Sound waves caused the stylus to cut a
pattern side to side within the groove. The pattern on the disc could then be reproduced
using a metal mould and hundreds of recorded discs could be manufactured
inexpensively from each mould. The disc itself was fashioned of metal covered with
wax. After the stylus cut the pattern, removing the wax from its path, acid was used to
etch the resulting waveform into the metal subsurface.
While the sound quality wasn’t up to par with that of the cylinders, the recording
method was better suited to mass production. By the year 1910, discs and springwound players were being sold all over the world featuring recordings by some of the
most popular singers of that era. Development of the vacuum tube amplifier in 1912 by
Lee de Forest spurred efforts to combine the phonograph and gramophone with
amplified playback, a process which took several more years.
During the same period that Edison, Bell, and Berliner were working on their sound
recording devices, others were working on developing methods of magnetic recording
of sound waves. The pattern of sound waves, instead of being imprinted on a disc or
cylinder, is translated into a series of magnetic domains that can be stored on a variety
of media. The first patent for such a device was claimed by Oberlin Smith in 1888.
Later, a man by the name of Poulson created a magnetic sound recorder that used steel
tape as the recording medium. He exhibited his invention at the Paris Exhibition in
1900, calling his device a Telegraphone.
The radio broadcast industry was very interested in equipment that could store sound
and immediately play it back, since it enabled them to repeat some broadcast material such as newscasts - whenever required. The tape could also be easily erased and reused
- another major benefit. Work by DeStille in 1924 resulted in the Blattnerphone, which
impressed the British Broadcasting Company enough to draw them into the
development process. The Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company also jumped into the
development effort, using steel-based magnetic tape that was initially biased to
saturation. Rudimentary magnetic recorders were produced, although the early
versions required literally miles of steel tape to accommodate 20 or 30 minutes of
recorded sound.
Cumbersome steel-based tapes gave way to plastic-based magnetic tape. The magnetic
oxides coating plastic-based tape can be formulated differently to change their
recording and sound-storage properties. Undesirable characteristics such as printthrough (the tendency of magnetic signals to leach through one layer of tape and affect
adjacent layers) can be minimized through a choice of magnetic oxide.
Magnetic methods of recording are still widely used in cassette recorders and reel-toreel decks, and improvements in electronics, recording media, magnetic recording
heads, and noise-reduction techniques have maintained the viability of this recording
method. However this method of recording is subject to certain limitations that have
been largely overcome by digital recording techniques. Signal-to-noise ratios of
recorded sounds, among other factors, have been greatly improved by digital storage
methods.
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After many years of development, digital recording gear has largely surpassed
analogue, reel-to-reel, and magnetic tape recorders. Digital recording machines - such
as the DAT, ADAT, RDAT, recordable mini-disc, portable studios with removable
hard disk drive storage, and home computers have changed our perception of “highfidelity” audio to startlingly clearer levels. In the digital realm, the signal-to-noise ratio
is greatly improved over analogue equipment, meaning the dynamic representation of
the music is greatly improved. The familiar hiss and tape noise common to analogue
recording is conspicuously absent in digital recordings. This particular improvement in
recording techniques ensures that the softest passages in a recorded musical work or
speech will be as free of noise as the loudest levels of recorded audio. The recordist
has a greater dynamic range to work with when using digital recording techniques, and
fewer processing “tricks” are required to guarantee an effective sound recording.
(From: Internet audio sourcebook, by Lee Purcell & Jordan Hemphill, Wiley, 1997)
Example 2
The 1979 study was conducted to test the validity of the strong version of the critical
period hypothesis. It was felt that a comprehensive study of foreign language learning
ability required hard data upon which to confirm or reject the strong version. Lacking
precise statements about what aspects of phonology the hypothesis involved, we
included both competence and productive performance in our informants’ task,
believing that if we could locate persons who had learned a second language as adults
and who could consistently pass as native speakers of that language under rigorous test
conditions, we would have ample grounds upon which to reject the strong form of the
hypothesis.
Seven non-native informants along with three native-speaking controls were taperecorded reading a carefully-prepared corpus in French. The non-native informants
were selected for the study on the basis of their ability to pass as native speakers of
French in casual conversation situations. These conversations took place in the
presence of three French-speaking persons who were thoroughly familiar with the
goals of the research. The French corpus included numerous sounds and sound
sequences known to be especially difficult for English-speaking students. The ten taperecorded passages were placed in five random order blocks and re-recorded onto
cassettes for scrutiny by native-speaking judges. These judges included 85 French
Canadians whose dominant language was French, approximately half of whom were
students at the University of Ottawa. They were directed to listen carefully to each
passage, and, the second time around, to assess each speaker as: 1) Francophone du
Canada; 2) Francophone dun autre pays, 3) Non-francophone. Five of the seven nonnative informants were consistently evaluated by our native-speaking judges as
francophone. Their scores closely approximated those obtained by our native-speaking
controls.
Example 3
Drama in language teaching.
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Plays have been employed to teach skill in language only since the Middle Ages.
In Greece and Rome performing on stage was beneath the dignity of the class whose
children could afford to go to school and a social ban remained on this activity until
the tenth century, when a German abbess, Hroswitha, composed Latin plays for her
novices. The expressed aim was to replace the plays of Plautus and Terence, then
considered too saucy for use in the cloister. Owing to the now usual way of acting out
the Bible stories in mystery plays, stage work was not an unusual recreation among
clerics. Latin plays, written in the classical manner, were often played in the
monasteries by the troupes of monks who staged the mystery plays in the churchyard.
Taking their cue from these mystery plays, the Jesuits developed another approach.
Many of their plays were in a classical style, but the characters were abstractions
drawn from grammar and literary criticism. The plays were meant both to drill pupils
in speaking Latin and Greek and to teach formal grammar. it is not unlikely that the
characters were modelled on the personifications of the De nuptiis Philologiae et
Mercurii of Martianus Capella, which was still known during the Renaissance. This
type of allegory had been a favourite device among medieval poets, and Martianus
Capelia had had many medieval imitators in vernacular languages.
One of the last sets of this type of play was the dramatized version of the Ianua
linguarum, published in 1664. The adaptation was made by D. Sebastianus Macer for
the use of the school of Patakina, at which he had taught, and which was regarded,
even by the master himself, as a model school. Though the book followed all the
allegorical conventions of the Jesuit play, there were several important differences.
First, the Cornenius plays were in prose, while the others had been in verse. Second.
the exact classical format was not followed, the plays being of varying length and
shape. But as the taste for allegory waned, so too did interest in this sort of play.
Classical drama formed an integral part of the Renaissance classics curriculum. In
England several who founded grammar schools specified that a classical play should
be performed every year; and on the continent, where Catholics were teaching in
Protestant schools and vice versa, the religious climate excluded contemporary
religious plays, so the classical repertoire was used exclusively. But medieval scruple
hung on grimly, even into the eighteenth century.
In England especially, the custom of an annual performance of a classical play was
still vigorously flourishing at the end of the nineteenth century, school editions being
prepared with staging in mind. Owing to the activities of the great German classicists,
the basic texts were now solidly established, but for school use they were carefully
expurgated, a difficult task considering the exigencies of meter. Many editors
normalized the preclassical spelling and even added stage directions. The place of such
presentations was strengthened by the advent of the Direct Method, and they spread to
the teaching of modern languages. Though it was considered most desirable to use
plays written for native audiences, this means of instilling confidence was made
available to younger pupils by providing them with plays in simplified language and
style. As far as modern plays were concerned, teachers were inclined to choose those
which reflected the culture of the country.
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In modern schools and universities the modern-language play came to be a special
show put on for the delectation of students’ parents and staff wives, but it also had the
serious purpose of having pupils exercise their oral skills under some difficulty. In
Russia, some schools encouraged the pupils to run puppet theatres in the foreign
language, a natural outcome of the general interest in this art form.
Example 4
In early 1982 telephone interviews were conducted with a statewide probability sample
of 2,083 registered voters in a major southwestern state. The interviews were
conducted for a state agency and addressed various voting-related attitudes and
opinions.
Within this context, a split ballot (experimental) design was employed whereby
approximately each quarter of the sample was asked age utilizing a different question
format. Three open-end and one closed-end question formats were investigated:
How old are you?
What is your age?
In what year were you born?
Are you 18-24 years of age, 25-34. 35-49, 50- 64, 65 or older?
Each question format was drawn from previous research and was selected to be
illustrative of one approach to asking age. The particular question format used when
asking an individual study participant his or her age was randomly determined prior to
the interview. Interviewers made no determination as to what age question format was
employed for a specific study participant.
All interviews were conducted from a centralized, supervised interviewing location
and began with an interviewer asking to speak to a prespecified individual. The
interviewer then introduced himself/herself and stated who was conducting the study
and asked for the potential study participant’s cooperation. The questionnaire consisted
of 20 questions, of which the age question was number 15.
Actual age data were available from the state agency for 1,324 of the individuals
interviewed. Therefore, following the completion of an interview it was possible to
compare an individual’s reported age with his or her actual age. This in turn permitted
inferences as to which question format produced the most accurate age data as well as
which format resulted in the lowest refusal rate or nonresponse rate.
Language
Past tense is common.
Chronological order is also common, but when we are writing about past events, it is
necessary to be explicit about the order in which things happened. To make the order
clear, we mention dates and time, and we also use various links and connectives.
Time
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In 1942, ...
During the 20th century, ...
Yesterday, ...
Twenty five years ago, ...
Sequence
before
Before he was offered a job as a lecturer, he had finished his research.
Before this, …
For the previous X years, …
Prior to this, …
Previously, …
X years previously, …
Before…
… before which …
… prior to which …
after
When
As soon as he had finished his research, he was offered a job as a lecturer.
After
On finishing his research,
After finishing his research,
he was offered a job as a lecturer.
Having finished his research,
On finishing his research,
For the following X years, …
X years later, …
After …
Following this, …
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When …
Subsequently, …
Soon/Shortly/Immediately afterwards, …
… following which …
… after which …
while
While he was doing his research,
When
doing his research,
he made an important discovery.
While
During his research,
During this period, …
Throughout this period, …
… during which…
… throughout which…
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Defining
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Defining
In academic writing, it is often necessary to define your terms.
Examples
Lava is the name applied to the liquid rock material, or magma, when it reaches the surface, as
well as to the solid rock formed by consolidation due to cooling. The temperature of lava as it
comes to the surface may exceed 2000�F, for copper wire with a melting point of 2200�F was
melted in the lava from Vesuvius, and at Kilauea a temperature of 2300�F. has been observed.
This earth of ours by Victor T Allen, p. 3
In this case, the term "lava" is being defined.
The sediment deposited by a stream is called alluvium.
This earth of ours by Victor T Allen, p. 97.
In this example, "alluvium" is being defined.
Diseases and symptoms
A disease is normally defined as an abnormal condition of the body that has a specific cause and
characteristic outward 'signs' and symptoms. Technically speaking, a 'sign' is considered to be an
indication of a disease that is noticed by the doctor but not by the patient, while a symptom is
something felt or perceived by the patient himself - but this distinction is often blurred in
ordinary conversation.
In this example, definitions of "disease", "symptom" and "sign" are defined.
Most metals are malleable; they can be hammered into flat sheets; nonmetals lack this quality.
Some metals are also ductile; they can be drawn out into thin wires; nonmetals are not usually
ductile.
Inquiry into earth and space science, by William J Jacobson, p 104-105.
The definition is not explicit in this case, but the words "malleable" and "ductile" are defined.
Language
X is ...
X is called ...
X is known as ...
X may be defined as ...
X is a type of Y that/which ...
A type of Y which ... is X
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Writing instructions
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Writing
instructions
Examples
Instructions can be given in many ways. A numbered list with the imperative form of the
verb is one common way. Continuous text using the passive form of the verb with should
is another common way. Make sure you distinguish between giving instructions - that is,
telling someone how to do something - and describing a process - that is describing how
something happens. Look at the following examples of different ways of giving
instructions. Notice the highlighted language items:
Calculating the standard deviation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Put the scores in order down the page.
Work out the mean.
Now calculate how much each deviates from the mean.
Now square each of these deviations.
Add them all up.
Now divide by the number of scores.
Lastly find the square root.
This is the standard deviation.
Mouth-to-mouth artificial respiration
In certain accidents, if breathing stops, it is possible to save life by artificial
respiration. This means that someone else causes air to enter and leave a person's
lungs. The method of artificial respiration now recommended by the U.S. Army, the
Red Cross, and the Boy Scouts of America is a method of mouth-to-mouth breathing.
First, place the victim face up. Tilt the victim's head back so that the chin is pointing
upward. Next, if there is any foreign matter in the victim's mouth, wipe it out quickly
with your fingers. Then, with your right-hand thumb, pull the jaw down to clear the
tongue from the air passage in the back of the victim's mouth. With your left hand,
pinch the nostrils to prevent the air you blow into the victim's mouth from escaping
through the nose. Now, place your mouth tightly over the victim's and blow into his or
her mouth until you see the chest rise. Remove your mouth, turn your head to the side,
and listen to the outrush of air that indicates air exchange. Repeat blowing. For an
adult, blow vigorously at a rate of about twelve breaths a minute. For a young child,
take relatively shallow breaths, at a rate of about twenty a minute.
Creating a new Web page
You don't need any special tools to create a Web page. You can use any word
processor, even WordPad or SimpleText, which are included with the basic Windows
and Macintosh system software.
To create a new Web page:
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1. Open a text editor or word processor.
2. Choose File > New to create a new, blank document.
3. Create the HTML content as explained in the rest of this book.
4. Choose File > Save As.
5. In the dialog box that appears, choose Text Only (or ASCII) for the
format.
6. Give the document the .htm or html extension.
7. Choose the folder in which to save the Web page.
8. Click Save.
Printing black and white photographs
1. Chemical solutions should be prepared and arranged in three dishes in the order
in which they will be used - developer, stop bath and fix. They must be brought
down or raised to the correct temperature (about 20�C) and there should be
enough of each to give a depth of 5cm.
2. The film should be cut into strips so that all will fit on to a single sheet of 10 x
8in paper. Clean the negatives and the sheet of glass with an anti-static cloth.
Then switch off the white light and switch on the safelight.
3. The enlarger is a convenient light source. The height of the head should be
adjusted so that its beam illuminates an area slightly larger than the sheet of glass
being used. Stop down to f8 and cover the lens with the safe filter.
4. Take a sheet of printing paper and lay it, emulsion (glossy) side up, in position
under the enlarger. It will not, of course, be affected by the filtered light from the
enlarger. Lay the negatives, emulsion (matt) side down, on top of the paper and
cover them with the sheet of glass to hold them in place.
5. Switch off the enlarger and then move the safe filter away from the lens. Switch
on the enlarger again and expose the paper for 10 seconds. This should be
accurate to within about one second.
6. The exposed photographic paper should now be taken from under the glass and
slid into the developer dish, emulsion side up.
7. When the paper has been in the developer for about 30 seconds the image should
begin to appear and it will continue to darken for about two minutes. Agitate the
paper gently during this period by rocking the dish or moving the paper about
carefully with the tongs.
8. After the prescribed time the image reaches a stage where there is little further
change in its density. At this point, remove the sheet from the developer and let
the liquid drain off.
9. When the developer solution has drained off the paper, take the second pair of
tongs and transfer it to the stop for 15-30 seconds.
10. Transfer the print from the stop bath to the fixer. After about a minute the white
light may be switched on and the print can be examined.
11. The print should now be transferred to the wash and kept there face down for 30
minutes, or at least twice as long for double-weight paper. In the case of resincoated paper it need only be for five minutes.
12. The finished print should now be dried. If a squeegee roller or photographic
blotting paper is used to remove excess water care should be taken not to get dust
on to the surface, which will remain tacky until the print is dry.
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HOW TO MAKE A KITE
TWO-STICK SQUARE KITE
Frame. No matter what size, you'll need two strips of wood
the same length. A lightweight wood like pine, spruce, or
split bamboo is best. For kites more than 1 metre in length,
use wood 1 cm. wide. For smaller kites, use 75 mm wood.
First, notch both ends of each piece to a depth of about a
quarter of an inch. Next find the center of each piece,
position the two at right angles, and glue. When the glue is
dry, lash the pieces together with fishing line or heavy thread
and spread a thin coat of glue over the lashing. (Don't fasten
with nails, tacks, or staples, since they add weight and
weaken the wood.) Then string lightweight cord or fishing line through the notches so
that the resulting frame is taut.
Cover. Use newsprint for smaller kites and brown wrapping paper or any paper about
the same weight for larger ones. If the paper is wrinkled, it should be ironed. Next,
outline the frame on the paper, leaving an extra inch all the way around. If the cover is
to be decorated, this is the time to do it. Use crayon, water colors, or glue-on cutouts.
Then glue the cover to the frame, bending the extra inch around the string and leaving
room for the crosspieces to protrude. The cover should be tight and flat. After it is in
place, apply a light coating of shellac or dope.
Controls. The kite's controls are the bridle, which is used for steering, and the tail,
which helps keep the kite upright. For the bridle, use two lengths of string, each about
a quarter again as long as one of the supports. One piece is fastened a few inches from
each end of the horizontal support, and the other is attached in the same way to the
vertical support. The flying line, for which you'll need at least 100 metres of wrapping
twine, is fastened where the strings meet. For the tail, start with 5 metres of string;
more, if the kite is a large one. Attach strips of rag at 25- or 50-cm intervals; then
fasten the tail at a point 10 or 15 cm above the base of the kite. Determining the proper
length for the tail is a matter of trial and error. If the kite dives, haul it in and add more.
When the tail is right, the kite will remain on an even keel.
(Adapted from: How to fly a kite, catch a fish, grow a flower and other activities for you
and your child. by Alvin Schwartz, 1964.
Exercises
Try this exercise: Exercise 1
Language
Sequence
Sequence, or order, is important in giving instructions. The table blow shows some
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common expressions used.
Firstly,
The first step is
First of all,
The first stage is
To begin with,
. begins with
Initially
. commences with
Beforehand,
Before this,
Previously,
Prior to this,
Earlier,
At the same time,
During
Simultaneously,
When this happens
While
Secondly, Thirdly etc After this,
Next,
The next step is
Then,
In the next stage,
Subsequently,
In the following stage,
Later,
Following this,
As soon as the committee has finished its work, .
Eventually,
. until .
Lastly
. finishes with .
Finally,
concludes with
In the last stage,
The last step is .
Manner - how something is done
in such a way that...
slowly, carefully, etc
with care/precision
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in a careful way/manner
Purpose - why something is done
so as to .
so as not to .
so that .
in order to .
in order not to .
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Describing
Function
Examples
Read the following texts:
The function of the skin
Each of the structures which comprise the skin has one or more functions, many of
which play a vital role in maintaining good health. Those which may be affected in
acne, eczema or psoriasis are also described in a little more detail.
A primary purpose of the skin is to provide a flexible, protective shield between us and
the outside world. This is made possible by the layers of dead, flattened epithelial cells
which prevent micro-organisms and chemicals from entering the body, and by the
waterproofing effect of the keratin, fats and oils. These protective benefits would not
last long, however, if skin cells were not replaced. This happens by a process of
continuous cell division in the basal layer, nutrients being provided by the blood
vessels in the papillary layer. As the cells move towards the outer surface, they lose
their nuclei, gradually become keratinised, and die.
Linked with cell division is the process of wound healing. This involves the inward
migration of cells such as fibroblasts and white blood cells, the release of special
chemicals called growth factors that stimulate the repair process, and increased cell
division of the epidermis to provide a new, intact surface layer. Redness and swelling
around a wound indicates that the blood vessels are enlarged and ‘leaky’ – a reflection
of inflammation and an immune response which contribute to the removal of dead and
damaged tissue.
Temperature regulation is also an important activity of the skin. The large amounts of
liquid lost during perspiration evaporate from the surface and cool it. Also, blood
vessels open up to dissipate heat when you are overheated – hence the pink flush when
you are warm – and contract when the body needs to conserve heat. Sweat also
contains waste materials such as urea and up to 1 gramme of waste nitrogen may be
lost through the skin every hour.
Skin also has a protective role in screening out potentially harmful ultraviolet (UV)
rays from the sun by manufacturing melanin pigments. However, UV is also involved
in chemical reactions leading to the synthesis of vitamin D3 – vital for normal growth
of teeth and bones and for the absorption of calcium from food. Blood and lymphatic
vessels are more numerous in the hypodermis than in the dermis, showing that it plays
a key role in defence against the penetration of foreign materials or pathogens. Its
other functions are largely storage (fats), cushioning and attachment.
What are the functions of blood in dogs?
Each component of blood has very specialized and important functions.
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Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, which is a red, iron-rich protein.
Hemoglobin enables red blood cells to carry oxygen from the lungs to all parts of
the body. Red blood cells give blood its color. When the blood is rich in oxygen
it is red, and when there is little oxygen in the blood, the blood is blue. Because
blood traveling from the lungs to the body usually contains lots of oxygen, blood
in the arteries is normally red. Much of the oxygen is removed from the small
capillaries by the body tissues, so blood in the veins tends to be blue in color.
The white blood cells defend the body against disease. They destroy bacteria and
foreign material, they stimulate inflammation and assist in the healing process,
and they produce proteins called antibodies that destroy bacteria, viruses, and
other diseases. WBCs move in and out of the blood stream, depending upon
where they are needed.
Platelets help the blood to clot. They group together to form clumps, plugging
any holes that develop in blood vessels. Clumps of platelets form a scaffolding
upon which a blood clot may form. Formation of a blood clot is a complicated
process called coagulation.
Plasma is the watery material that carries all other components of the blood
within the blood vessels. If water is lost through dehydration, wounds or burns,
then the blood can become thickened, almost like sludge, and circulation will be
adversely affected.
The function of schools
For Dewey education primarily involves interactions that empower the individual to
take an active and intelligent part in social life. Pedagogy, on this account, must
involve strategies and methods to emphasize power rather than appreciation; the
“enlightened and trained capacity to carry forward those values which in other
conditions and past times made those experiences worth having” rather than the
empathic assimilation of others’ experiences. Schools must provide educative
experience which will give the student such possession of him or herself that she or he
may take charge of him or herself; may not only adapt him or herself to the changes
which are going on, but have the power to shape and direct those changes. Dewey sees
the educative function of schools in their capacities to provide those experiences, some
of which are embodied in the occupations of work and play. There is a clear view in
Dewey that these occupations serve a connective function; they do not preserve the
past, but connect the past to the present and future of the child’s interests and
activities.
THE DEATH PENALTY
I want to organize under five simple verbs my own reasons for thinking that the death
penalty is a bad thing. If we catch a man who has committed a murder, try him and
convict him, we have to do something more with him than punish him, because,
although he must be punished, there are several other things that ought to happen to
him. I think that the whole theory of what ought to be done to a convicted murderer
can be summed up in the five verbs: prevent, reform, research, deter and avenge. Let
me take these five things in turn and see how the death penalty now looks as a means
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of achieving them.
The first is 'prevent'. By this I mean preventing the same man from doing it again, to
check him in his career-though, of course, nobody makes a career of being a murderer,
except the insane, who are not at issue in the question of the death penalty. I believe
that I am right in saying that in the course of a century there is only one doubtful case
of a convicted murderer, after his release at the end of a normal life sentence,
committing another murder. I think that that means, statistically, that the released
murderer is no more likely to murder again than anybody else is. The question of long
sentences comes in here. If the sane convicted murderer is not to be hanged, should he
be imprisoned, and should the length of his service be determined in a way not the
usual one for the actual sentence served? I think this question can be answered only by
looking at the statistics of how likely a man is to do it again. In other words, how likely
a prison sentence for a given number of years, 15, 20 or 30 years, is to prevent him
from doing it again. There is a wealth of statistics available to us on that. I do not think
they suggest that the convicted murderer who is not hanged should have his prison
sentence dealt with in any way differently from that in which prison sentences are
usually dealt with.
To turn to the second verb on my list, 'reform'. That is rather a nineteenth century
word, and perhaps we should now say 'rehabilitate', stressing more the helping of a
man with his social functions rather than adjusting his internal character; but that is a
minor point. It is clear that, whatever we may think about what is able to be achieved
in our prison system by treatment in the reformatory and rehabilitatory way - and it is
open to criticism for lack of funds and so on-it is obvious that less can be achieved if
you hang a man. One man who is utterly unreformable is a corpse; and hanging is out
of the question, because you cannot achieve any form of reform or rehabilitation by it.
The next word is 'research'. This is not part of the traditional idea of what to do with a
convicted murderer. It is rather a new notion that it may be an appropriate purpose in
detaining a criminal and inflicting punishment and other things upon him that research
should be conducted into the criminal personality and the causes of crime. At the
moment we hang only the sanest criminals. We can get all the research we want into
the motives, characters and personality structures of those with diminished
responsibility, the insane and those under an age to be hanged. But the one we cannot
research into is the man who is sane and who commits capital murder in cold blood on
purpose. It might be that if we were to keep this man alive and turn psychiatrists and
other qualified persons on to talking to him for twenty years during his prison sentence
we should find things that would enable us to take measures which would reduce the
murder rate and save the lives of the victims. But in hanging these men we cut
ourselves off from this possible source of knowledge of help to the victims of murder.
The fourth word, 'deter', is the crux of the whole thing. Abolitionists, as we all know,
have held for many years that evidence from abroad has for long been conclusive that
the capital penalty is not a uniquely effective deterrent against murder. Retentionists of
the death penalty have been saying for years that we are not like those abroad; we are a
different country economically; our national temperament is different; and there is this
and that about us which is not so about those in Italy, Norway or certain States of the
United States, New Zealand, India, or wherever it may be. Now we have this
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remarkable pamphlet which in effect closes that gap in the abolitionists' argument. It
shows within mortal certitude that we are exactly like those abroad, and that in this
country the death penalty is not a uniquely effective deterrent against murder.
The last on the list of my five verbs is 'avenge'. Here the death penalty is uniquely
effective. If a man has taken life, the most effective, obvious and satisfying form of
vengeance is to take his life. I have no argument against that. I think it is true that if
one accepts vengeance as a purpose proper for the State in its handling of convicted
criminals, then the death penalty should stay for convicted murderers. For myself - and
it is only a personal matter - I utterly reject the idea that vengeance is a proper motive
for the State in dealing with convicted criminals; and I hope that, from the date of the
publication of this pamphlet onwards, those who wish to retain the death penalty will
admit that its only merit is precisely that of vengeance.
(Lord Kennet from a Speech in the House of Lords, November 9th, 1961)
Language
The thermostat controls the temperature.
The thermostat is used for controlling the temperature.
The function of the thermostat is to control the temperature.
The thermostat serves to control the temperature.
A thermostat is an instrument for measuring temperature.
A thermostat enables the researcher to measure the temperature accurately.
The function of advertising is to market products and services to potential buyers in
an effective and persuasive manner
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Describing
processes
Examples
Here is a description of the process of sorting letters.
First of all, letters and packets are collected in bags from pillar boxes, post offices and
firms, in post office vans. They are then taken to the sorting office, where the bags are
emptied and the letters separated from the packets. Following this step, the letters are
put through machines so that the stamps can be cancelled. In this process the date and
place of sorting are put over the stamps on each envelope. In the next stage, the sorting
of the letters takes place, according to the county they are addressed to. This is done by
placing them in the appropriate pigeon hole. Subsequently, the letters are taken from
the pigeon holes and placed in baskets, which are then put onto a conveyor belt. While
on this conveyor belt, the baskets are directed to the appropriate secondary sorting
section by means of coding pegs. At the secondary sorting frames, the letters are put
into towns in the county. Later, the letters are tied in bundles and a label is put on
showing the towns they are addressed to. Finally, the letter bundles are placed in bags,
which have the Post Office seal, Post Office Railway number and Destination Code
number on them, and then these are sent to the railway station.
Notice that the passive form of the verb is widely used. This is because in this type of
writing, we are usually more interested in the process than in the people doing the work.
Observe all the link words.
Example 1
MAKING A TRANSISTOR
1 FIRST MASKING
The silicon base is first coated with silicon dioxide, which does not conduct electricity,
and then with a substance called photoresist. Shining ultraviolet light through a
patterned mask hardens the photoresist. The unexposed parts remain soft.
2 FIRST ETCHING
A solvent dissolves away the soft unexposed layer of photoresist, revealing a part of the
silicon dioxide. This is then chemically etched to reduce its thickness. The hardened
photoresist is then dissolved to leave a ridge of dioxide.
3 SECOND MASKING
Layers of polysilicon, which conducts electricity, and photoresist are applied, and then
a second masking operation is carried out.
4 SECOND ETCHING
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The unexposed photoresist is dissolved, and then an etching treatment removes the
polysilicon and silicon dioxide beneath it. This reveals two strips of p-type silicon.
5 DOPING
The hard photoresist is removed. The layers now undergo an operation called doping
which transforms the newly revealed strips of p-type silicon into n-type silicon.
6 THIRD MASKING AND ETCHING
Layers of silicon dioxide and photoresist are added. Masking and etching creates holes
through to the doped silicon and central polysilicon strip.
7 COMPLETING THE TRANSISTOR
The photoresist is dissolved, and a final masking stage adds three strips of aluminium.
These make electrical connections through the holes and complete the transistor.
In this transistor, known as an MOS type, a positive charge fed to the gate attracts
electrons in the p-type silicon base. Current flows between the source and the drain,
thereby switching the transistor on. A negative charge at the gate repels electrons and
turns the current off.
Example 2
Carbon, the basic element of organic chemistry, undergoes a natural cycle in the
environment. It exists in the form of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. From there it is
absorbed by plants to build carbohydrates in green leaves. When plants burn, and
animals breathe out, carbon dioxide passes back into the air. Also in decaying plant and
animal remains, carbohydrates are broken down to release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
Example 3
THE PHOTOCOPIER
Static electricity enables a photocopier to produce almost instant copies of documents.
At the heart of the machine is a metal drum which is given a negative charge at the
beginning of the copying cycle. The optical system then projects an image of the
document on the drum. The electric charge disappears where light strikes the metal
surface, so only dark parts of the image remain charged. Positively charged particles of
toner powder are then applied to the drum. The charged parts of the drum attract the
dark powder, which is then transferred to a piece of paper. A heater seals the powder to
the paper, and a warm copy of the document emerges from the photocopier. A colour
copier works in the same basic way, but scans the document with blue, green and red
filters. It then transfers toner to the paper in three layers coloured yellow, magenta and
cyan. The three colours overlap to give a full colour picture.
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Example 4
PAPERMAKING
Printing is of little use without paper. A sheet of paper is a flattened mesh of
interlocking plant fibres, mainly of wood and cotton. Making paper involves reducing a
plant to its fibres, and then aligning them and coating the fibres with materials such as
glues, pigments and mineral fillers.
1 FELLING
Trees are felled and then transported to paper mills as logs.
2 DEBARKING
The bark has first to be stripped off the logs without damaging the wood.
3 PULPING
Pulping reduces the wood to a slurry of loose fibres in water. The logs are first sliced
into chips and then treated with chemicals in a digester. These dissolve the lignin
binding the wood fibres together. Alternatively, machines may grind the logs in water
to produce pulp. The pulp is then bleached.
4 MIXING
The pulp goes to the mixer, where materials are added to improve the quality of the
paper. The additives include white fillers such as china clay, size for water-proofing,
and coloured pigments. The mixer beats the fibres into a smooth pulp.
5 FORMING THE WEB
Liquid pulp is fed from the flowbox onto the mesh belt. Water drains through the holes
in the mesh; the drainage is accelerated by suction. The dandy roll presses the fibres
together into a wet ribbon known as a web.
6 PRESSING
Belts move the web between the press rolls, which remove more water and compress
the paper.
7 DRYING
The damp web moves through the dryer, where it passes between hot cylinders and feltcovered belts that absorb water. It then passes through the calender stacks before being
wound on reels or cut into sheets.
Example 5
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THE REFRIGERATOR
A domestic
refrigerator uses
the cooling effect
of an evaporating
liquid. A
refrigerant liquid
(such as Freon, a
compound of
carbon, fluorine
and chlorine) is
pumped through
cooling coils (the
evaporator) in
which it expands
(evaporates) and
absorbs heat from
the surroundings.
The evaporator is
formed into the icemaking
compartment of the
refrigerator. After
passing through the
cooling coils in the
evaporator, the
vapour is then
compressed by a
compressor
(usually driven by
an electric motor)
and condensed
back to a liquid
when the absorbed
heat is given out.
The cycle of events is then repeated over and over again. The refrigerator is really a
heat engine working in reverse. In order to take heat out of the low-temperature interior
of the refrigerator and transfer it to the higher temperature of the surrounding air, work
must be done. If it is to work continuously, a refrigerator must be supplied with energy
from outside. This external energy is usually electricity, which operates the electric
motor driving the compressor, but it could be a gas flame. In the food chamber of a
domestic refrigerator the temperature is just above the freezing point of water, about 1�
or 2�C: in the ice-maker and in the deep-freeze it is usually around -15�C.
(Adapted from: The Penguin book of the physical world, London, 1976)
Example 6
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The Steam Engine
A steam
engine
utilises
the
energy
contained
in steam
under
high
pressure.
The
energy
that is
released
when
steam
expands
is made to
produce
rotary
motion which can be used for the driving of machinery. The steam from the boiler is
admitted into the cylinder in which there is a piston and in which the steam expands,
causing the piston to move (Fig. la). When the piston has travelled to the end of the
cylinder and thus completed its stroke (Fig. lb), the now expanded steam is allowed to
escape from the cylinder. At the same time the steam is changed over, live steam under
pressure being admitted to the other side of the piston, causing the latter to travel back,
past its starting point (Fig. lc), until it has reached the other end of its stroke (Fig. Id). A
steam engine of this kind is called "double-acting" because the force of the steam is
applied alternately on two sides of the piston. While the piston is being forced in one
direction by the expanding steam, the spent steam is pushed out of the cylinder on the
other side of the piston. Reversing, i.e., the change-over of the steam supply so as to
ensure the admission of live steam to the appropriate side of the piston and the
discharge of the spent steam on the other side, is effected automatically by a control
device called a slide valve.
(Adapted from: How things work 1, Paladin, 1972)
Example 7
Car Braking System
The braking
system of a car
is a good
example of how
a hydraulic
system works.
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When the brake pedal is pressed a piston operates which forces brake fluid out of the
master cylinder and along four narrow pipes to the slave cylinders attached to the brake
drums or discs so that the same pressure is applied to the brakes in each wheel. This
brings the car to a smooth halt. Provided the system is kept filled with brake fluid,
hydraulic brakes work instantly because liquids cannot be compressed to any great
extent.
If air leaks into the system, the brakes become much less efficient. This is because,
unlike liquids, gases are compressible and some of the movement of the brake pedal is
taken up in squeezing the air bubble.
(From: The Penguin book of the physical world. Penguin, 1976)
Language
Sequence
Firstly,
The first step is
First of all,
The first stage is
To begin with,
... begins with
Initially
... commences with
Beforehand,
Before this,
Previously,
Prior to this,
Earlier,
At the same time,
During
Simultaneously,
When this happens
While
Secondly, Thirdly etc After this,
Next,
The next step is
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Then,
In the next stage,
Subsequently,
In the following stage,
Later,
Following this,
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As soon as the committee has finished its work, ...
Eventually,
... until ...
Lastly
... finishes with ...
Finally,
concludes with
In the last stage,
The last step is ...
Passive
The silicon base
is coated with silicon dioxide.
Letters and packets are collected.
The bark
has to be stripped.
Method - how something is done.
First of all, letters and packets are collected in bags from pillar boxes.
This is done by placing them in the appropriate pigeon hole.
The baskets are directed to the appropriate secondary sorting section by means of coding
pegs.
The drainage is accelerated by suction.
The vapour is then compressed by means of a compressor.
Position - where something happens
They are then taken to the sorting office, where the bags are emptied.
The pulp goes to the mixer, where materials are added to improve the quality of the paper.
The steam from the boiler is admitted into the cylinder in which there is a piston.
Purpose
Following this step, the letters are put through machines so that the stamps can be
cancelled.
This is then chemically etched to reduce its thickness.
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From there it is absorbed by plants to build carbohydrates in green leaves.
In order to take heat out of the low-temperature interior of the refrigerator, work must be
done.
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Classifying / categorising
Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Classifying /
categorising
When we classify, we arrange members of a group. For example, if we take the following
list:
Physics, Chemistry, Biology, French, German, Spanish.
It is quite clear that we have two different types of word. We have science subjects and
languages. So it is simple to divide the list into two:
Physics, Chemistry,
Biology,
AND
French, German, Spanish
When we are classifying, we often need to say what our classification is and how we are
making it.
Examples
Read the following text.
Lavas may he divided into two contrasting types, acid and basic. Acid or siliceous
lavas have a high silica content, about 70 to 75 per cent, and are stiff or viscous. They
move slowly over the surface and solidify close to the vent. Basic lavas have a silica
content of about 50 per cent. Dark colored and fluid, they flow more easily at lower
temperatures and reach a greater distance from the crater than do acid lavas.
This earth of ours, p. 3 .
What is the text classifying? Lavas.
How many types are there? 2
What are the two types? Acid and basic.
How do we make the distinction? The amount of silica present.
Look at these examples:
ROCKS
Scientists group rocks into three main types: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
IGNEOUS rocks are produced by white-hot material deep inside the earth which rises
towards the surface as a molten mass called magma. If the magma stops before on it
reaches the surface, it cools and forms rocks such as granite. If the magma erupts, it
forms a red-hot stream called lava. When the lava cools it becomes rock. One of the
most common lava rocks is called basalt. Igneous rock is used in the formation of the
other two main types of rocks - sedimentary and metamorphic.
SEDIMENTARY rock is formed by small particles or sediments such as sand, mud,
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dead sea animals and weathered rock. These are deposited in layers and become solid
rock over millions of years as they are squeezed by the weight of other deposits above
them.
The word metamorphosis means 'change'. Rocks which have been changed by heat
and pressure are called METAMORPHIC rocks. They are formed deep inside the
earth. Slate for example is formed from compressed mud or clay. Marble is another
type of metamorphic rock. It is produced from limestone which has undergone change
through heat and pressure,
The chemical elements in the earth's crust are classified in two major groups - metals
and nonmetals. Elements are classified as metallic or nonmetallic, according to their
physical and chemical properties. Metals, for example, are usually good conductors of
heat and electricity; nonmetals usually are not. Most metals are malleable; they can be
hammered into flat sheets; nonmetals lack this quality. Some metals are also ductile;
they can be drawn out into thin wires; nonmetals are not usually ductile. Metals
usually have luster, and are able to reflect light. They also have a high density.
Nonmetals usually do not exhibit these properties. A few elements, such as arsenic and
antimony, exhibit both metallic and nonmetallic properties and are sometimes referred
to as metalloids.
Inquiry into earth and space science, by William J Jacobson, p 104-105.
Exercise
Try this exercise: Exercise 1
Language
The tables below show some of the most common language used in texts which have
classification as their purpose.
types
: acidic and basic.
kinds
There are
. These are acidic and basic.
classes
of lava
two
categories
sorts
are acidic and basic.
The
varieties
categories
classes
consists of
. These are acidic and basic.
two kinds
Lava comprises
: acidic and basic.
types
can be divided into
varieties
classes
kinds
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types
Acidic and basic are categories of lava.
varieties
Lava may be classified
according to
on the basis of
amount of silica present.
depending on
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Giving
examples
In academic writing it is common to make generalisations. It is often useful to support
these generalisations with examples.
Examples
Look at the way examples are given in the following texts.
The quiet outpouring of lava is characteristic of basaltic lavas with about 50 per cent
silica. The Hawaiian volcanoes are typical examples. On the island of Hawaii, Mauna
Loa rises 13, 675 feet above sea level and 20 miles away is Kilauea 4,000 feet high.
Though the authorities do not seem to have been aware of the scale and significance of
capital flows within the sterling area, they were aware that the exchange controls in
that area were not all that London hoped. For example, a major recipient of capital
from the UK in this period, Australia, had notoriously "leaky" controls.
Morgan was not interested in the terms for themselves but in the principles which they
seemed to reveal when they were put together. For example, he would have been
interested in the fact that the English word "uncle" can be used in speaking both of
one's mother's brother and one's father's brother while in Swedish, for instance, two
different words are used.
Understanding this religious social consciousness requires some grasp of the
traditional Catholic teaching on the natural order and the good society, and how the
nation is to respect the divine order established by God. An example of this can be
taken from the recent contraception controversy which began in the 1960s.
What socialism there has been among the catholic _ nationalist tradition has always
tended to be allied to republicanism, especially in the period 1913 to 1930 (Rumpf and
Hepburn 1977: 13). The trade union movement was a case in point.
This was the situation which Morgan described for the Iroquois when several tribes get
together, not any more on the basis of kinship or marriage, but on the basis of
confederacy. This was exemplified by the league of the Iroquois which Morgan had
studied in detail.
A key experiment shows this. A hole is made in the shell and a small cube of cells is
carefully cut out from the posterior margin containing the polarizing region and grafted
into the anterior margin of the limb bud of another embryo.
The explanation behind that paradox is once again the problem of the two uses of
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anthropology in their work. The rhetorical use they made of anthropologists' ideas as a
source for a criticism of the society of their time, especially as a criticism of the way
institutions such as the family, marriage, and the status of women were seen as
unchangeable and eternally fixed, is one which seems totally justified to present-day
anthropologists.
Language
shown
This
is exemplified by ...
...
illustrated
For example,
...
For instance,
shows
A key experiment exemplifies this. ...
illustrates
This is shown by the following examples,
...
The following are examples of this:
The following is a case in point:
... is a case in point.
... institutions such as the family ...
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Including charts and diagrams
It is often useful when you are writing to include reference to tables and charts.
Example 1
Look at the following example:
Figure 1 shows sales of mobile phones per month. As can be seen, it covers the
years 1998 to 2001 and shows that the sales of mobile phones declined steadily
in 1998, then remained steady from May until the end of the year. The sales
rose more and more steeply, throughout 1999, with a steep increase at the end
of the year, and reached a peak of 6,200 in February 2000. A sharp fall
followed but sales levelled off at about 5,300 per month in April, fluctuated
slightly through the year, and are now increasing again. The figures seem to
indicate that we have recovered from the problems in mid-2000 and are on
target to improve on our February 2000 peak by the end of 2002.
Usually in such cases, the writer does not simply add the visual to the text, but includes some sort of comment. Typically
the writer will include (Swales & Feak, 1994):
a few words that locate the visual,
a statement that draws attention to the important features of the visual,
some sort of comment on or discussion of the visual.
Example 2
As shown in Figure 12-2, the flyball governor is connected
mechanically to the output shaft of a steam engine so that the ball
mechanism rotates at the speed of the engine. If the load on the engine
decreases, speed will tend to increase which, through centrifugal
action, forces the balls outward. Through the linkage, this will
proportionately close off the steam supply to the engine. If the engine
tends to lose speed, the mechanism increases the steam supply
accordingly. Therefore, the flyball governor maintains engine speed at
a preset value without human intervention. This invention is
significant in several respects. It is remarkable if for no other reason
than it was so advanced for its time (the 1780s). Furthermore, it is a
classic illustration of the elegant solution. Finally, it is widely
recognized as an outstanding example of what engineers can do
without the benefit of theory. The mathematical theory of the behavior
of this governor did not appear until 1868
Figure 12-2 A flyball governor
Example 3
About 70 percent of the world's population live in the less developed
countries. What is more noteworthy about this situation is that the rate of
economic growth of the developed countries exceeds the rate of economic
growth of the underdeveloped countries, creating an ever-widening gap
between the richest and poorest nations, as can be seen from the graph in
Figure 20-3. Especially alarming in this regard is the fact that during the
decade 1960-1970 agricultural output in the underdeveloped countries
increased at an average annual rate of 2.7 percent per year while the
population of these countries increased at an annual average rate of 2.8
percent (United Nations 1973), creating an absolute deterioration in their
living standards.
(From: Marvin Harris, Culture, people, nature: An introduction to general
anthropology. Harper, 1975)
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Example 4
A typical apparatus used in the measurement of atomic spectra
is indicated in figure (5-1). The source consists of an electric
discharge passing through a region containing a monatomic gas.
Owing to collisions with electrons, and with each other, some of
the atoms in the discharge are put into a state in which their
total energy is greater than it is in a normal atom. In returning to
their normal energy state, the atoms give up their excess energy
by emitting electromagnetic radiation. The radiation is
collimated by the slit, and then it passes through a prism (or
diffraction grating), consequently breaking up into its spectrum,
which is recorded on the photographic plate.
(From: Robert Martin Eisberg, Fundamentals of modern
physics. Wiley, 1961)
Example 5
Figure 2 shows long-term monthly means of
discharge hydrographs of six gauging stations on
the Upper Rhine, Moselle and Saar. These curves
allow the respective increases in streamflow
between the gauges to be derived due to inflowing
tributaries. In the winter months these increases
amount to some 300 m3/s between the gauges
Rheinfelden and Maxau on the Upper Rhine. The
crux of the matter, however, is the fact that the
peaks of these flood waves in the tributaries are by
far (up to 10 times) higher than the mean monthly
discharge increases in the receiving river between
these two gauges. Flashfloods in tributaries to the
Rhine from the Black Forest and the Vosges
Mountains characterise here the genesis of floods
in the Rhine. Before river training, the peaks in the
tributaries entered the Rhine about 1.5-2 days
before the Rhine flood peaks arrived. A similar
situation can be observed in the Moselle upstream
of Trier, where the Upper Moselle, the Sauer, and
the Saar come together. In both cases, typical
patterns of flood genesis involve the risk that the
impacts of river training on flood-runoff along the
Upper Rhine, Moselle and Saar increases
downwards of the rivers and are stronger there
than immediately at the ends of the canalised
reaches.
(From: J. U. Belz, N. Busch, H. Engel and G.
Gasber, Comparison of river training measures in
the Rhine catchment and their effects on flood
behaviour. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers: Water and Maritime Engineering, 18,
2001, pp. 123-132)
Example 6
2 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
To investigate the internal structure of transient diesel
sprays from a five-hole VCO nozzle, a Bosch common-rail
injection system equipped with a CP3 pump was used. A
double-guided needle injector was also adopted to ensure
the uniformity of the spray between the nozzle holes in the
early stage of injection. The diameter of the nozzle exit
was 0.144 mm. Using common-rail pressures of 39.5 MPa
and 112 MPa, the sprays were injected, under atmospheric
ambient conditions, to retard the completion of the break-
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up and to give easy optical access. Figure 1 shows the
schematic diagram of the experimental set-up. The
specially designed nozzle cap was mounted so as to face
one of the five holes without the optical interference of
neighbouring sprays [16]. The nozzle cap allowed only one
spray from a hole open for observation, while it bypassed
other sprays from four holes without disturbing injection
performance. The injection velocity was calculated from
the injection rate profiles measured with the Bosch tube
method [17, 18].
Using a long-distance microscope and two illumination
techniques, the development of the spray was
microscopically visualized. First, a laser light sheet formed
by an Ar-ion laser was aligned, through two cylindrical
lenses to the centre of the spray, and the scattered light was
imaged with an intensified charge-coupled device camera
whose exposure time (gating time) was 70 ns. The
dimensions of the visualized area were about 2 mm x 1.5
mm. Second, a backward illumination technique was
applied with a spark light whose effective light duration
was about 10 ns, and a high-resolution charge-coupled
device camera was used for imaging. The field of view was
about 1.2 mm x 1.0 mm. The characteristics of the optics
were then calibrated with model particles that ranged in
size from 4.8 to 45 am. Because of diffraction phenomena,
the light intensity at the particle edge gradually changed.
Therefore, the depth of field and the contrast of the small
particle images were inferior to those of large particles.
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of experimental set-up for
microscopic spray visualization
(From: Choongsik Bae and Jinsuk Kang, The structure of a
break-up zone in the transient diesel spray of a valvecovered orifice nozzle. International Journal of Engine
Research, 7, 2006, pp. 319-334)
Example 7
1-2 CLASSIFICATION OF FORCES
Force is one of the most important of the basic concepts in the study of mechanics of materials (or the mechanics of
deformable bodies). Force is the action of one body on another; forces always exist in equal magnitude, opposite
direction pairs. Forces may result from direct physical contact between two bodies, or from two bodies that are not in
direct contact. For example, consider a person standing on a sidewalk. The person exerts a force on the sidewalk through
direct physical contact between the soles of his or her shoes and the sidewalk; the sidewalk in turn exerts an equal
magnitude, opposite direction force on the soles of the person's shoes. If the person were to jump, the contact force
would vanish but there would still be a gravitational attraction (force between two bodies not in direct contact) between
the person and the earth. The gravitational attraction force exerted on the person by the earth is called the weight of the
person; an equal magnitude, opposite direction, attraction force is exerted on the earth by the person. Another type of
force that exists without direct physical contact is an electromagnetic force.
Contact forces are called surface forces, since they exist at
surfaces of contact between two bodies. If the area of
contact is small compared to the size of the body, the force
is called a concentrated force; this type of force is assumed
to act at a point. For example, the force applied by a car
wheel to the pavement on a bridge (see Fig. 1-1) is often
modeled as a concentrated force. Also, a contact force may
be distributed over a narrow region in a uniform or nonuniform manner. This situation would exist where floor
decking contacts a floor joist, as shown in Fig. 1-2a. Here,
the floor decking exerts a uniformly distributed load(force)
on the joist, as shown in Fig. 1-2b. The intensity of the
distributed load is w and has dimensions of force per unit
length.
Other common types of forces are external, internal,
applied, and reaction. To illustrate, consider the beam
loaded and supported, as shown in Fig. 1-3a. A free-body
diagram of the beam is shown in Fig. 1-3b. All forces acting
on the free-body diagram are external forces; that is, they
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represent the interaction between the beam (the object
shown in the free-body diagram) and the external world
(everything else that has been discarded). Force F is a
concentrated force, whereas w is a uniformly distributed
load with dimensions of force/length. The forces F and w
are called applied forces or loads. They are the forces that
the beam is designed to carry. Forces Ax, Ay, and B are
necessary to prevent movement of the beam. Such
supporting forces are called reactions. Force distributions at
supports are complicated, and reactions are usually modeled
as concentrated forces.
Once again, all the forces shown in Figure 1-3 are external
forces. At every section along the beam, there also exists a
system of equal magnitude, opposite direction, pairs of
internal forces between the atoms on either side of the
section. The study of mechanics of materials or mechanics
of deformable bodies, depends on the calculation of these
internal forces at various sections of a structure or machine
element and how these forces are distributed over the
sections.
(From: Mechanics of materials, William F. Riley, Leroy D. Sturges & Don H. Morris, Wiley, 1999)
Example 8
Experiments with the Monochord
Our source of sound will no longer be a tuning-fork but an
instrument which was known to the ancient Greek mathematicians,
Pythagoras in particular, and is still to be found in every acoustical
laboratory - the monochord.
Its essentials are shown in fig. 22. A wire, with one end A fastened
rigidly to a solid framework of wood, passes over a fixed bridge B
and a movable bridge C, after which it passes over a freely turning
wheel D, its other end supporting a weight W. This weight of
course keeps the wire in a state of tension, and we can make the
tension as large or small as we please by altering the weight. Only
the piece BC of the string is set into vibration, and as the bridge C
can be moved backwards and forwards, this can be made of any
length we please. It can be set in vibration in a variety of ways - by
striking it, as in the piano; by stroking it with a bow, as in the
violin; by plucking it, as in the harp; possibly even by blowing
over it as in the Aeolian harp, or as the wind makes the telegraph
wires whistle on a cold windy day.
Fig. 22. The monochord
(From: James Jeans, Science and music. Cambridge University
Press, 1937)
Example 9
Saturation Water Vapour Density.
Considered from the point of view of the kinetic theory of matter, evaporation occurs because of the tendency for pure
liquid water to establish a dynamic equilibrium with the water vapour concentration in the atmosphere in contact with it.
At standard pressure and in a closed system, the equilibrium water vapour concentration over pure water will be at a
specific partial pressure or the so-called saturation water vapour pressure. Table 1.2 shows that the saturation water
vapour pressure increases with increasing temperature. At the critical temperature (in the case of water, 100 C), the
vapour pressure of liquid water is the same as the saturation water vapour pressure of the atmosphere. The critical
temperature for water at a pressure of 1 bar is 100 C and, above the critical temperature for a given pressure, liquid
water cannot exist.
�
�
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Table 1.2. Saturation water vapour pressures (SWVP) and the corresponding saturation water vapour densities
(SWVD) at different temperatures
5 C
�
10 C
�
15 C
�
20 C
�
25 C
�
30 C
�
35 C
�
SWVP (mbar)
8.72
12.27
17.04
23.37
31.67
42.43
56.23
SWVD (g m-3)
6.74
9.39
12.83
17.30
23.00
30.38
39.63
(From: Hans Meidner & David W. Sheriff, Water and plants. Blackie, 1976)
Example 10
Table 2.6 illustrates clearly the extent to which the flora of selected islands now contain alien species, with the percentage
varying between about one-quarter and two-thirds of the total number of species present.
Table 2.6. Alien plant species on ocean islands
Island
Number of native species Number of alien species % of alien species in flora
New Zealand
1200
1700
58.6
Campbell Island
128
81
39.0
South Georgia
26
54
67.5
Kerguelan
29
33
53.2
Tristan da Cunha
70
97
58.6
Falklands
160
89
35.7
Tierra del Fuego
430
128
23.0
(From: Andrew Goudie, The human impact on the natural environment. Basil Blackwell, 1981)
Example 11
Table 4.2 gives an example of an engineering curriculum. Such a curriculum does not tend to vary significantly among
colleges and universities or engineering disciplines. Note that the curriculum described adheres to the requirements of
ABET. That curriculum is based on the semester system. Many universities operate on the quarter system in which the
academic year is divided into three periods of about 12 weeks duration. A quarter-based-curriculum would of course be
"packaged" differently but would be similar to one based on the semester system.
Table 4.2 Typical Freshman Engineering Curriculum
Semester Hours Credit
Freshman Year Courses
1st Semester 2nd Semester
CHEM 101 - General Chemistry
4
-
CHEM 102 - General Chemistry
-
4
MATH 120 - Calculus and Analytical Geometry
5
-
MATH 132 - Calculus and Analytical Geometry
-
3
Elective in Social Science or Humanities
3
3
GE 103 - Engineering Graphics
3
-
RHET 105 - Principles of Composition
-
4
ENG 100 - Engineering Lecture
0
-
CE 195 - Introduction to Engineering
-
0
PHYSICS 106 - General Physics (Mechanics)
-
4
15
15
TOTALS
(From: Paul H Wright, An introduction to engineering. Wiley, 1989)
Example 12
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Most programming languages require that a declarative statement that introduces a variable also specify the type of data
that will be referenced by that variable. Figure 5.5 gives examples of such declarative statements in Pascal, C, C++, Java,
and FORTRAN. In each case the variables Length and Width are declared to be of type real, and Price, Tax, and
Total are declared to be of type integer. Note that C, C++, and Java use the term float to refer to the type real, since data
of this type are represented in floating-point notation.
(From: J. Glenn Brookshear, Computer science: An overview. Addison-Wesley, 1997)
Example 13
(From: Mechanics of materials, William F. Riley, Leroy D. Sturges & Don H. Morris, Wiley, 1999)
Example 14
Figure 7.6 shows that the average turbidity factor for the
atmosphere (Linke turbidity) has increased by 30 per cent in a
decade (the dot-and-dash line). It also shows the effect of a
natural source of turbidity, the Mount Agung (Bali) eruption of
1963 (the single, continuous line). In the figure the dotted line
represents the linear trend for the same period if the effects of
the eruption are excluded from the computations.
(From: Andrew Goudie, The human impact on the natural
environment. Basil Blackwell, 1981)
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Example 14
The Lewinian Model of Action Research and Laboratory Training
In the techniques of action research and the laboratory method, learning, change, and growth are seen to be facilitated
best by an integrated process that begins with here-and-now experience followed by collection of data and observations
about that experience. The data are then analyzed and the conclusions of this analysis are fed back to the actors in the
experience for their use in the modification of their behavior and choice of new experiences. Learning is thus conceived
as a four-stage cycle, as shown in Figure 2.1. Immediate concrete experience is the basis for observation and reflection.
These observations are assimilated into a "theory" from which new implications for action can be deduced. These
implications or hypotheses then serve as guides in acting to create new experiences.
(From: David A.Kolb, Experiential learning. Prentice Hall, 1984)
Example 15
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Linguists use the term isogloss to refer to the geographical boundary of a linguistic trait. Even within a relatively
homogeneous speech area, quite a large number of isoglosses can be traced. 'lucre is no necessary relation between any
one isogloss and any other; they crisscross and diverge and often present a rather bewildering picture.
Figure 3.3 is a conceivable linguistic map on which three isoglosses are marked. The linguistic traits in question arc
lexical ones. Sonic speakers call a certain sparrow-like bird found in the region finu; others use the word tawen to
designate this kind of bird. The isogloss running vertically demarcates roughly the subareas characterized by these
alternate lexical items - speakers to the left of this line in general use finu, while those to the right use tawen. Similarly,
the stanu/lufa and the sen/iktaw isoglosses indicate the extensions of the use of alternate lexical items.
The three isoglosses divide the region represented in Figure 3.3 into six subregions, each of which is distinct from the
other five. In one subregion, speakers use finu, stanu, and sen; in another they use tawen, stanu, and sen. Where, then, is
there a dialect boundary? There is really no satisfactory answer to this question. Dialect boundaries are established on the
basis of different linguistic traits, but the three linguistic traits indicated in Figure 3.3 contradict one another as to where a
dialect boundary lies. The dividing line will be drawn in one place if the criterion is the finu/tawen distinction, in another
if it is the stanu/lufa alternation, and in still another if it is the sen/iktaw distinction. If we added more isoglosses to
Figure 3.3, the situation would be worse yet.
One way out of the difficulty is to say that six dialect areas are represented in Figure 3.3, not two. In other words, we can
define a dialect in such a way that two people speak different dialects if their linguistic systems differ with respect to at
least one trait. Thus a person from the finu/lufa/sen area speaks a different dialect from the one spoken by a person from
the tawen/lufa/sen area, since one person uses finu while the other uses tawen.
(From: Ronald W. Langacker, Language and its structure, Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1967)
Example 16
One form in which sound spectra are often shown is illustrated in Fig. 26. Frequencies are set out on the horizontal scale
in hertz. The relative amplitude of the components is given with reference to the vertical scale; the component with the
greatest amplitude is given the value 1.0 and the amplitude of all other components is expressed as a proportion of this
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value. Wherever a vertical line is drawn, there is a component of that frequency present in the mixture with the amplitude
indicated; at all other frequencies there is zero sound energy. The two examples are the bass C of the piano, one octave
below middle C, with a fundamental frequency of 132 Hz and middle C played on the clarinet, fundamental 264 Hz. In
each case any components represented in the spectrum must be in the harmonic series and consecutive harmonics will
appear at an interval equal to the fundamental frequency. In the piano note consecutive harmonics occur over a wide
frequency range and since the fundamental is low they appear close together. The fundamental of the clarinet note is an
octave higher and therefore the distance between consecutive harmonics is doubled. It is only from about 1500 Hz
upwards that consecutive harmonics appear in the clarinet tone ; the second and fourth harmonics have zero amplitude.
There are major differences in the mechanisms for generating sound in the piano and the clarinet : the piano tone is the
result of free vibrations of the piano string which is struck by a hammer while the air column of the clarinet is performing
forced vibrations in response to the continued vibration of the reed and does not show the rapid damping of the sound
which is so characteristic of the piano. Nonetheless the differences in spectrum which appear in Fig. 26 are largely
responsible for the difference in sound quality which we hear between the two instrument
(From: D. B. Fry, The physics of speech, Cambridge University Press, 1979)
Language
Referring to a diagram, chart etc.
As can be seen
It can be seen
We can see
can be seen
...
is shown
As can be seen
It can be seen
We can see
chart,
...
diagram,
table,
from
the
graph,
in
figures, that ...
statistics,
chart.
diagram.
table.
from
the
graph.
in
figures.
statistics.
Table 1,
from
Figure 2, .
in
Graph 3,
seen
concluded
can
shown
that ...
be
From
figures it
estimated
may
the chart
calculated
diagram
inferred
Table 1
Figure 2
The graph
shows that ...
Figure 1
Describing change
barely noticeable
slight
slow
gradual
steady
There was a(n) (very) marked
dramatic
steep
sharp
rapid
sudden
rise.
increase.
upward tend.
fluctuation.
downward trend.
decrease.
decline.
reduction.
fall.
drop.
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rise
increase
decrease
of ...
There was a(n) decline
reduction
fall
drop
increased
shot up
grew
rose
X declined by ...
reduced
decreased
dropped
fell
slightly
slowly
gradually
steadily
markedly
X declined
dramatically
reduced steeply
decreased sharply
dropped rapidly
fell
suddenly
increased
shot up
grew
rose
X
reached a peak.
levelled off
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Comparison
and contrast
When you are writing, you need to do much more than just give informatrion. You should
always be trying to do something with your writing. One common function in academic
writing is comparing and contrasting, writing about similarities and differences. There are
many ways of expressing comparison and contrast in English.
Example
Look at the following table and read the text below. Pay attention to the comparisons and
contasts.
Price
Processor Speed Screen Size Hard Disk RAM
Evesham Axis 1.33 SK �1,174 1.33 GHz
17"
40 GB
256 MB
Armani R850 P4.
�2,467 1.7 GHz
19"
40 GB
256 MB
Mesh Elite 1.7GT Pro
�1,938 1.7 GHz
19"
57 GB
256 MB
Elonex WebRider Pro
�1,174 1.2 GHz
17"
38.1 GB
128 MB
Three personal computers, the Evesham Axis 1.33 SK, the Armani R850 P4 and the
Mesh Elite 1.7 GT Pro, were compared with respect to the following factors: price,
processor speed and size of hard disk. The Evesham Axis, which costs �1,174, is by
far the cheapest of the three, the Armani and the Mesh Elite costing �2,467 and
�1,938 respectively. The Evesham Axis has the same hard disk size as the Armani, 40
MB, whereas the Mesh Elite is the largest at 57 GB. Regarding the processor speed,
the Armani and the Mesh Elite are similar - the processor speed, at 1.7 GHz, being
0.37 GHz faster than the Evesham Axis.
Other examples are:
In the 19th century, two widely differing schools of socialist thought emerged, the
Utopian Socialists and the Marxians. The first group believed that public ownership of
the means of production was a necessary goal for human happiness. However, they
wanted to reach it gradually and peacefully, using democratic methods to make
changes through the government. They believed in ballots, rather than bullets. They
also felt that owners who had mines, factories or land taken away by the government
should be paid for their property. People who have these beliefs today are called
Socialists. The second group, led by Marx, also wanted the government to take over all
private property used to produce goods. However, their methods were to be very
different. They thought that violence or revolution would be necessary because the
owners of property would fight to hold on to it. No payment should be made to these
owners who lost their property. Today, those who believe in these methods are called
Communists. The Russian Communists are the heirs of Marx.
Edward Kolevzon, The Afro-Asian world. Allyn & Bacon, 1971.
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Tribes differed in their basic ways of providing for themselves. Indians of the
Southwest lived in villages and planted their corn and squash in orderly rows. Around
the Great Lakes forest Indians hunted deer and small furbearing animals. On the Great
Plains braves tracked the buffalo. In the Pacific Northwest plentiful supplies of salmon
and other fish tempted Indians into their canoes and kept hunger away.
Bernard Weisberger, The impact of our past. McGraw Hill, 1972.
Exercise
Try this exercise: Exercise 1, Exercise 2
Language
Comparison
with respect to price.
as regards price.
The Evesham Axis is like the Elonex WebRider
The Evesham Axis and the Elonex WebRider are similar as far as price is concerned.
regarding price.
The Evesham Axis is similar to the Elonex WebRider
The Evesham Axis is the same as the Elonex WebRider in that the price is the same.
in terms of price.
The Evesham Axis resembles the Elonex WebRider
in price.
Both the Evesham Axis and the Elonex WebRider cost �1,174.
The Evesham Axis is as expensive as the Elonex WebRider.
The Evesham Axis costs the same as the Elonex WebRider.
The Evesham Axis is the same price as the Elonex WebRider.
Similarly, it has a high capacity hard disk.
Likewise, it has a high capacity hard disk.
The Mesh Elite has a large screen. Correspondingly, it has a high capacity hard disk.
It has a high capacity hard disk, too.
It also has a high capacity hard disk.
Contrast
The Evesham Axis differs from the Armani
The Evesham Axis is unlike the Armani
The Evesham Axis and the Armani differ
The Evesham Axis is different from the Armani
The Evesham Axis contrasts with the Armani
with respect to price.
as regards price.
as far as price concerned.
regarding price.
in terms of price.
in price.
The Evesham Axis costs �1,174, whereas the Armani costs �2,467.
The Evesham Axis costs �1,174, while the Armani costs �2,467.
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The Evesham Axis costs �1,174, but the Armani costs �2,467.
The Evesham Axis costs �1,174, in contrast to the Armani, which costs �2,467.
The Armani is more expensive than the Evesham Axis.
The Evesham Axis is not as expensive as the Armani.
The Armani costs more than the Evesham Axis.
The Armani is expensive to
buy.
On the other hand, it is very fast and has a large
screen.
In contrast, it is very fast and has a large screen.
Conversely, it is very fast and has a large screen.
However, it is very fast and has a large screen.
Although the Armani is expensive to buy,
it is very fast and has a large screen.
Despite the high price of the Armani,
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Generalising
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Generalising
A common organistional principle in academic writing is the general-specific
pattern. This patterns involves general statement supported by specific examples or
details.
Example
Look at the following examples involving generalisations. In some cases the
generalisations are supported by details or examples.:
It believed that the USA wanted a round-the-world air route with access to all
countries including the Soviet Union, China, the Middle East, and Africa, as well as
the British Commonwealth and Empire.
Marx and Engels followed their contemporaries in believing that the history of
mankind usually went through the same sequence of technological improvement. The
sequence, by and large, went like this: first gathering of plants and small animals,
second fishing, third hunting, fourth pottery, fifth pastoralism, sixth agriculture,
seventh metalworking.
Throughout most of known human existence the processes, materials and tools of
production were available to individuals involved in both utilitarian and expressive
work. Since the Renaissance, however, the exponential growth and sophistication of
technology has made it impossible for the majority of artists to gain access to many
potential tools for expression.
Covert operations are different from espionage in that their main purpose is to
influence a foreign situation without the source of the influence becoming known.
Such operations may take the form of secretly financing, advising, or otherwise
helping a group which is trying to overthrow an unfriendly foreign government. They
may take the form of secret money subsidies or other assistance to a foreign political
party or to a particular faction of a foreign labour movement, or student organization,
or similar groups. They may take the form of psychological warfare - for example, the
publication of an underground newspaper or the operation of a clandestine radio
station which, according to the circumstances, may report the truth or spread
unfounded rumours calculated to destroy morale or to mislead. They may take the
form of an outright bribe of a foreign official to make a certain decision. They may
take the form of infiltrating one or more secret agents into positions of power in a
foreign government or any important foreign political, economic, or social group.
Pat Holt, United States policy and foreign affairs. Allyn & Bacon, 1972.
Language
Plural nouns are often used for broad generalisions ("Covert operations are"). It is often
possible to be more specific about the generalisation that is being made by the use of:
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Generalising
Percentage Quantity
100%
all/every/each
Frequency
Certainty
Verbs
always
certain(ly)
definite(ly)
undoubtedly
clearly
presumably
probably/probable
likely
will
is/are
must
have to
most
a majority (of)
usual(ly)
many/much
normal(ly)
general(ly)
as a rule
on the whole
some
a number (of)
conceivably
often
several
frequent(ly) possibly/possible
perhaps
a minority (of) sometimes
occasional(ly) maybe
a few/a little
uncertain
rare(ly)
few/little
unlikely
seldom
hardly ever
scarcely ever
0%
no/none/not any never
should
ought to
can
could
may
might
could not
will not
cannot
is/are not
Some of the probability qualifications can he further qualified, e.g.
fairly certain
likely
very
quite probable
is
rather possible
that .
It
likely
almost unlikely
quite
unlikely
seems
appears certain
Sometimes generalisations may be introduced or qualified in the following way:
the (vast) majority
of
a large number
cases, .
In most
some
a few
(+ other "quantity" words)
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Degree of certainty
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Expressing
degrees of certainty
It is important when you are writing to show how sure you are about something. In other
words, you need to show the degree of certainty.
Examples
Look at the following examples:
It is not known, and will probably never be known, when he began writing poetry. The
answer almost certainly lay in the sack of papers that Susan Owen, on her son's strict
instructions, burnt at his death.
Less finished, but more intimate, is a passage from a fragmentary "Ballad of a Morose
Afternoon", written most probably some time after he had left Dunsden.
There were, broadly, two interrelated reasons for this, the first relating to Britain's
economic and Imperial difficulties, the second to the internal dissension in all three
parties, a symptom perhaps of the need for a realignment of political parties.
Language
Degree of
certainty
Verbs
complete
is (not)
will (not)
must (not)
certain(ly)
definite(ly)
clear(ly)
undoubtedly
probably (is)
presumably
likely/unlikely
possibly (not)
perhaps (not)
can/cannot
should (not
partial
could (not)
may (not)
less strong
might (not)
It is said that ...
It appears that ...
impersonal (i.e. no commitment)
A reports that ...
There is evidence to suggest that. (etc.)
strong
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Cause and Effect
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Cause and
effect
Take the following sentence:
The death rate from cancer is increasing.
We might want to ask why this is happening. We want the cause of this. The reason, or
the cause, is that:
People are smoking more.
The death rate from cancer is increasing is the effect.
People are smoking more is the cause.
Example
Read the following text and observe the cause and effect relationships.
There are several factors to be taken into account when studying why some plants
become weak or die. One reason is lack of water. Dryness in the soil causes the leaves
to wilt, and may give rise to the death of the plant. On the other hand, too much water
may result in the leaves drooping, or becoming yellow. While sunshine is necessary
for plants, if it is too strong, the soil may be baked and the roots killed. However, if
there is no light, the leaves will become pale and the stems thin. Consequently the
plant may die.
Lack of water
dryness in the soil
leaves to wilt
death of plant.
Too much water
leaves droop or become yellow
death of the plant.
Too strong sun
baked soil
roots killed.
Lack of light
pale leaves & thin stems
death of the plant.
More examples:
War, meantime, had broken out between the United States and Mexico. The main
cause was a long standing dispute over where the southern boundary of Texas
belonged. Americans were saying it lay along the Rio Grande, and the Mexicans were
insisting that it belonged along the Nueces River.
Henry Graff, The free and the brave. Rand McNally, 1968.
While this is not the place to discuss the pros and cons of American policy in
Southeast Asia, Americans should not have been surprised by Martin Luther King's
stand. In opposing what he considered to be an imperialistic adventure and a war of
colonial oppression, King was acting in the great tradition of Negro leaders throughout
American history. Frederick Douglass, it will be recalled, had denounced the American
war against Mexico; his son had ridiculed and protested the American war against
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Spain. And to a man of Dr. King's historical scholarship, the dangers to the struggle for
Negro rights of continued American participation in the Vietnam conflict seemed
clear.
First of all, no matter what the proclaimed intentions of the American government
might be, American soldiers were fighting against a colored people as they had in the
Philippines from 1898 to 1901; and that could only aggravate anti-Negro feeling
domestically. Secondly, Negro troops who provided more than eleven percent of the
American combat forces in Vietnam and suffered eighteen percent of the casualties
might well ask themselves the same question that Private William Simms found
unanswerable during the Philippine campaign. In the third place, militarism had
always been the arch-enemy of tolerance and progress. After each of America's wars,
there had been a reaction of more or less severe hysteria against all progressive
movements, including the struggle for Negro equality. And finally (as Dr. King
reminded his critics), he had received a Nobel Prize for peace, he was a citizen of the
world as well as an American Negro, and he felt himself responsible to work for peace
everywhere. From the viewpoint of history, it would seem that Dr. King had no need to
apologize at all for his new position.
Robert Goldson, The negro revolution, Macmillan, 1968.
The following text gives three reasons why DNA is unique:
DNA is unique in three respects. First, it is a very large molecule, having a certain
outward uniformity of size, rigidity and shape. Despite this uniformity, however, it has
infinite internal variety. Its varied nature gives it the complexity required for
information-carrying purposes. One can, indeed, think of the molecule as if it had a
chemical alphabet somehow grouped into words which the cell can understand and to
which it can respond.
The second characteristic of DNA is its capacity to make copies of itself almost
endlessly, and with remarkable exactness. The biologist or chemist would say that such
a molecule can replicate, or make a carbon copy of itself, time and again with a very
small margin of error.
The third characteristic is its ability to transmit information to other parts of the cell.
Depending upon the information transmitted, the behavior of the cell reflects this
direction. As we shall see, other molecules play the role of messenger, so that DNA
exercises its control of the cell in an indirect manner.
William McElroy & Carl Swanson (Eds.), Foundations of biology. Prentice-Hall, 1968.
Exercise
Try this exercise: Exercise 1
Language
This relationship can be expressed in many ways:
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Cause and Effect
1. Simply
Emphasising cause.
The death rate from cancer is
increasing
because
owing to the fact
that
people are smoking
more.
Emphasising effect.
As
Because people are smoking more, the death rate from cancer is increasing.
Since
People are smoking
more.
People are smoking
more,
Therefore,
So,
Thus,
Hence,
Consequently,
Because of this,
For this reason,
As a consequence,
As a result,
the death rate from cancer is
increasing.
as a result of which
as a consequence of
which
with the result that
2. With some grammatical changes.
Emphasising cause.
The fact
that
the death rate from cancer is
increasing
reason
The
for
One
cause of
the death rate from cancer
increasing
is
may
be
An increase in the death rate from
is due to
may be due
to
is that
could be
that
one effect of
one result of
one consequence
of
caused by
people smoking
more.
people are smoking
more.
people smoking
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due to
because of
cancer
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more.
results from
arises from
Emphasising effect.
Owing to people smoking more, the death rate from cancer is increasing.
effect of
One result of
The consequence
of
people smoking
more
is
that
the death rate from cancer is
increasing.
is to
increase the death rate from cancer.
results in
leads to
produces
an increase in the death rate from cancer.
People smoking more causes
is the cause of
gives rise to
brings about
People smoke
more,
resulting in
leading to
producing
(so)
causing
(thus)
(thereby) giving rise to
bringing
about
an increase in the death rate from
cancer.
If people smoke more the death rate from cancer will increase.
Exercise
Try this exercise: Exercise 2
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Taking a stance
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Taking a
Stance
Read the following sentence:
Previous studies have indicated that the intensity of physiotherapy provision may affect
some patient outcomes including reduced mortality following stroke.
In academic writing, it is often necessary to make it clear to your reader what opinion you
hold or what your position is with regard to a certain issue. This is often called your
"voice" or your "position" or your "claim".
As a student, it is not enough to simply describe a situation or recall the facts, you need
to take a stance or position yourself in relation to the situation or the facts. This is
particularly important in assessment when you have to answer a question. Of course,
you need to know and reproduce the information, but you also need to use the
information to give an answer to the question, to give YOUR answer to the question.
In the sentence above, the words "indicate", "may" and "some" show the writers position
towards the facts. Instead of "indicated", the words "shown", proved" or "suggested" could
have been used. The word "may" might have been replaced by "could", "will" or nothing.
"Some" was chosen, where "many", "few" or "most" were also possible.
Here are some other words and phrases that you can use to show your position:
1
Introductory verbs
e.g. seem, indicate, suggest
2
Thinking verbs
e.g. believe, assume, suggest
3
Reporting verbs
e.g. claim, find, confirm, assert
3
Evaluative
adjectives
e.g. important, misguided, wrong, misguided, inaccurate,
incorrect
4
Evaluative adverbs
e.g. accurately, unsatisfactorily
5
Adverbs of
frequency
e.g. often, sometimes
6
Modal verbs
e.g. will, may, might, could
7
Modal adverbs
e.g. certainly, definitely
8
Modal adjectives
e.g. certain, definite
9
Modal nouns
e.g. assumption, possibility
10 Signalling words
e.g. furthermore, similarly
Example
Read the following example from the field of Physiotherapy and identify words that show
the author's position:
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Patellofemoral disorders are amongst the most common clinical conditions
encountered in the sporting and general population. Patellofemoral pain is usually
described as diffuse, peripatellar, anterior knee pain. Symptoms are typically
aggravated by activities such as ascending or descending stairs, squatting, kneeling,
running and prolonged sitting.
A wide variety of disorders may fall under the umbrella term of patellofemoral pain.
As a result, a thorough systematic evaluation of the patient’s lower extremity
alignment, patellar mobility and alignment, muscle flexibility, strength, co-ordination,
soft tissue and articular pain is important in determining the possible causes of
patellofemoral pain and prescribing an optimal rehabilitation programme. Management
of patellofemoral pain syndrome often includes reduction of pain and inflammation
through cryotherapy, heat therapy, massage therapy, muscle flexibility and strength
training (especially quadriceps), patellar taping, bracing, orthotics, correction of
abnormal biomechanics or other causative factors, acupuncture and surgery.
From: The effect of medial patellar taping on pain, strength and neuromuscular
recruitment in subjects with and without patellofemoral pain. By Janet H.L.
Keet, Janine Gray, Yolande Harley, & Mike I. Lambert. Physiotherapy, 93 (2007) 45–
52.
Examples are:
Patellofemoral disorders are amongst the most common clinical conditions
encountered in the sporting and general population. Patellofemoral pain is usually
described as diffuse, peripatellar, anterior knee pain. Symptoms are typically
aggravated by activities such as ascending or descending stairs, squatting, kneeling,
running and prolonged sitting.
A wide variety of disorders may fall under the umbrella term of patellofemoral
pain.As a result,a thorough systematic evaluation of the patient’s lower extremity
alignment, patellar mobility and alignment, muscle flexibility, strength, co-ordination,
soft tissue and articular pain is important in determining the possible causes of
patellofemoral pain and prescribing an optimal rehabilitation programme. Management
of patellofemoral pain syndrome often includes reduction of pain and inflammation
through cryotherapy, heat therapy, massage therapy, muscle flexibility and strength
training (especially quadriceps), patellar taping, bracing, orthotics, correction of
abnormal biomechanics or other causative factors, acupuncture and surgery.
Exercise
Try this exercise:
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Arguing & Discussing
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Arguing &
discussing
In academic writing, arguing and discussing is often part of a larger piece of writing. In
arguing and discussing, you are expected to present two or more points of view and
discuss the positive and negative aspects of each case. On the basis of your discussion,
you can then choose one point of view and persuade your readers that you are correct.
This means giving your opinions (positive and negative) on the work of others and your
own opinions based on what you have learned. You need to evaluate arguments, weigh
evidence and develop a set of standards on which to base your conclusion.
As always, all your opinions must be supported - you should produce your evidence and
explain why this evidence supports your point of view. It is important to distinguish
between your claim (proposition, thesis) - your point of view, what you believe; your
evidence (support or grounds) - the facts, data and examples that support your point of
view - and your reasons (warrant or argument) - why you believe what you do, how the
evidence you have provided leads to the claim your are making. (See Toulmin, 1958).
There are two main methods of presenting an argument, and in general the one you
choose will depend on exactly how the essay title is worded (See Understanding the
question and Organising the answer for more information).
a. The balanced view
In this case you present both sides of an argument, without necessarily committing
yourself to any opinions, which should always be based on evidence, until the final
paragraph.
At its simplest your essay plan will be as follows:
Introduce the argument to the reader.
e.g. why it is a particularly relevant topic nowadays
or refer directly to some comments that have been voiced on it recently.
Reasons against the argument
State the position, the evidence and the reasons.
Reasons in favour of the argument.
State the position, the evidence and the reasons.
After summarising the two sides,
state your own point of view,
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and explain why you think as you do.
b. The persuasive essay
This second type of argumentative essay involves stating your own point of view
immediately, and trying to convince the reader by reasoned argument that you are right.
The form of the essay will be, in outline, as follows:
Introduce the topic briefly in general terms,
and then state your own point of view.
Explain what you plan to prove in the essay.
Reasons against the argument.
Dispose briefly of the main objections to your case. Provide evidence and your
reasons.
Reasons for your argument
the arguments to support your own view,
with evidence, reasons and examples.
Conclusion - Do not repeat your opinion again.
End your essay with something memorable
e.g. a quotation or a direct question.
Example
Read the following examples: Example 1, Example 2.
Exercise
Try this exercise: Exercise 1
Language
Presenting another point of view
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maintain(s)
say(s)
argue(s)
assert(s)
Some people
believe(s)
X
In a study of Y, X claim(s)
point(s) out
is/are of the opinion that
…
seem(s) to believe
It is the view of X
The opinion of X is
It can be argued
It has been suggested
It might be said
According to X
Commenting on another point of view
Negatively
They
He
She
X
This
mistaken.
is/are
somewhat
wrong.
may be
rather
rigid.
seem(s) to be
approach would seem to be inadequate.
position
X's
methods
beliefs
open to doubt.
not always the case.
not necessarily true.
is/are unlikely to be true.
This
highly debatable.
These views
incorrect.
highly speculative.
cannot be upheld.
Serious
can
doubts
be raised against this.
reservations may
I disagree with X when he
writes
that …
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says
However, it is clear that …
One of the main arguments against X is that …
One disadvantage of
Another point against
X
A further argument against
is …
One other disadvantage of
One objection to this argument
Plus negative words: wrong, mistaken, false, erroneous, misplaced,
inaccurate, incorrect, debateable, untrue, not the case.
Positively
I agree with X when he
writes
that …
says
X is certainly correct when he says
that …
X may be correct
in saying
One advantage of
Another point in favour of
X is
A further argument supporting
One other advantage of
One of the main arguments in favour of
…
Plus positive words: correct, right, accurate.
Presenting own point of view
There are many reasons why …
important
remember
true
to bear in mind that …
It is
necessary
point out
essential
The first thing we have
to consider is …
I would like
First of all,
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The first thing to be considered is
It is a fact
There is no doubt that …
I believe
The first reason why … is …
First of all, …
The second reason why … is …
Secondly, …
The most important …
In addition, …
Furthermore, …
What is more, …
Besides, …
Another reason is …
A further point is …
Supporting an argument: Illustrating and exemplifying ideas
See: Giving examples
Drawing conclusions
See: Drawing conclusions
Comparing & Contrasting
See: Comparing and contrasting
In all cases, points of view may be qualified and generalisations may be made. You may
also have different degrees of certainty about your claims.
^
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Drawing conclusions
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Drawing
conclusions
The main purpose of the conclusion is to show that the main purpose of the piece of
writing has been achieved.
a. It should recall the issues raised in the introduction and draw together the
points made in the main body of the piece of writing;
b. and come to a clear conclusion.
It should clearly signal to the reader that the writing is finished and leave a clear
impression that the purpose has been achieved.
Analysis
Read the following example of the conclusion from the field of computer assisted
language learning and teaching. The study investigated the use of the World-Wide-Web
for teaching writing in a British university.
Use Of A Writing Web-Site By Pre-Masters Students On An English for Academic
Purposes Course.
A. J. Gillett, University of Hertfordshire
Conclusion
1During the past 10 years, the use of computers in education has increased dramatically
and a wide range of educational computer programmes are now widely available for
individual and classroom use. 2However, there has been very little research reported on
the effectiveness of such use. 3The purpose of the present study was therefore to
ascertain the effectiveness of using computer-assisted instruction as compared to
traditional classroom instruction in an EAP writing class. 4The findings clearly suggest
that the inclusion of web-based materials in EAP writing courses for post-graduate
students from East-Asia on an English language preparation course is effective.
5Further research is needed, however, before the use of such materials can be
recommended for all students in all subject areas at all levels.
Examples
Read the following conclusions:
In conclusion, therefore, it can be seen that millions of people continue to be affected
by water-related problems and, contrary to popular belief, future water supplies are not
inexhaustible. So the situation is very serious, especially in view of the UN estimates
of demand. Although projects to provide ever-increasing supplies of water indicate that
a growing number of countries are aware of the present problems and of those to come,
these more often than not are highly expensive and not very practical - and very time124
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consuming when time is a commodity in short supply. So, while research in these areas
is important, the eventual solution would definitely appear to be worldwide
conservation and pollution control - in other words, a greater respect for our most
valuable natural resource.
Altogether, it seems that we cannot accept without question the dramatic increase in
recorded crime as corresponding to a real increase in victimization of the same
proportions. But, however good it would be to explain away all, or even most, of the
increase as an artefact of recording changes, this cannot be shown to be the case. We
can plausibly infer that crime has been increasing in the last two to three decades,
presenting a problem for explanation and policy.
Language
In short,
In a word,
In brief,
To sum up,
To conclude,
...
To summarise
In conclusion,
On the whole,
Altogether,
In all,
accepted
generally argued
that .
It is
held
widely
believed
Therefore,
concluded
can
Thus,
be deduced that .
it
may
On this basis,
inferred
Given this,
Table 1
seen
concluded
table
shown
can
figures
that .
be
it
From
estimated
may
the data
calculated
results
inferred
information
In conclusion, we/may say
that .
it can/may be said
Finally
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing
Rhetorical functions in academic writing
Exercises
Reporting and narrating
Exercise 1: Town history
Writing instructions
Exercise 1: Avoiding accidental plagiarism
Exercise 2: Printing from transparencies
Describing processes and developments
Exercise 1: Coffee processing
Exercise 2: Coffee sorting
Exercise 3: Acts of parliament
Exercise 4: Becoming a solicitor
Exercise 5: The Otto cycle
Classifying/categorising
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Exercise 3 - Soil
Exercise 4 - Music
Exercise 5 - Matter
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing
Exercise 6 - Animals
Exercise 7 - Food
Exercise 8 - Geometric shapes
Exercise 9 - Drinks
Exercise 10 - Folk Literature
Exercise 11 - Writing
Including tables and diagrams
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Exercise 3
Exercise 4
Exercise 5
Exercise 6
Exercise 7
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Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing
Comparing and contrasting
Exercise 1 Computers
Exercise 2 PDAs
Exercise 3 Printers
Exercise 4 Digital Voice Recorders
Cause and effect
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Arguing & Discussing
Exercise 1
Writing critically
Exercise 1
^
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Using English for Academic Purposes
A Guide for Students in Higher Education
Accuracy in EAP
Andy Gillett
School of Combined Studies
University of Hertfordshire
Hatfield, UK
129
Accuracy in EAP
Accuracy in EAP
Introduction
When using English for academic purposes it is important to be accurate both in speaking and
writing. It is, however, very difficult to produce language which is intelligent, appropriate and
accurate at the same time. It is therefore important to break down the task into stages: an
ideas stage and an accuracy stage.
Speaking
When you are speaking, you therefore need to prepare well. Do not prepare only
your ideas; prepare your language as well. Michael Wallace's advice (Wallace,
1980, pp. 209-210) is very useful. Write out your spoken presentation in the way
that you intend to say it. This means that if you are working from a piece of your
own written work, you must do some of the work of writing the paper again. Written
language is different from spoken language. Your seminar presentation will
probably take less time than the written paper it is based on and you cannot
summarise while you are standing at the front of the room. When you have written
out your talk, you will need to carefully check it for accuracy. Another possibility is
to record your presentation and watch it later. While you are watching it, look out for
mistakes - a useful way to do this is to transcribe sections of your talk, as it is
easier to notice mistakes when they are written down. You can then try to give the
talk again.
Writing
When you are writing, you need to rewrite and edit your work carefully. In Writing
and the writer, Frank Smith distinguishes between "composition" and "transcription"
in writing. "Composition" is deciding what you want to say, and "transcription" is
what you have to do to say it. His advice is "The rule is simple: Composition and
transcription must be separated, and transcription must come last. It is asking too
much of anyone, and especially of students trying to improve all aspects of their
writing ability, to expect that they can concern themselves with polished
transcription at the same time that they are trying to compose. The effort to
concentrate on spelling, handwriting, and punctuation at the same time that one is
struggling with ideas and their expression not only interferes with composition but
creates the least favorable situation in which to develop transcription skills as
well" (Smith, 1982, p. 24).
Advice
Check how good you are at finding mistakes.
For seminars, plan your talk in detail and carefully proof-read it for accuracy. Or, give your talk,
transcribe it and then proof-read it.
In writing, proof-read your work.
^
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Accuracy in EAP
Introduction
Many people would say there was a "mistake" in each of the following sentences.
Can you identify them? For each sentence, please do four things:
•
mark the faulty word or words;
•
briefly describe what is wrong;
try to write a correct or improved version;
• decide how important the mistake is.
•
1. A rentcharge is the right to receive an annual sum out of the income of
land every year.
2. All of the solutions considered so far have only involved Legendre
functions of even order.
3. Before spelling out exactly what this means, it is worth first asking
whether translating machinery is necessarily irreversible.
4. Being in charge, the accusation was particularly annoying to me.
5. Finally, it enables the therapist to assess the effectiveness of his own
clinical skills and, hopefully, to improve them in future.
6. He is a former student who I've not seen for years.
7. He is an unskilled labourer and works at odd jobs, but he don't do any of
them very well.
8. However, there were other patients whose lives had ended by suicide.
9. I have now discussed the proposals for replacing all the computers with
my colleagues.
10.It is felt that less people would be put off attending with other problems if
the stigma of going to a clinic could be dispensed with.
131
11.It is just possible that you are one of those rare people who has never
seriously tried to diet.
12.It may be open to challenge on certain grounds, i.e. if an emergency
occurs.
13.It was the community in it's purest form.
14.It was thought necessary to determine legally that someone had attained
the age when they were allowed to marry?
15.Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) had supposed that the main cause of
evolutionary change was because of the "inheritance of acquired
character".
16.Kinship in these societies had to be completely different to what it was in
capitalist society.
17.No matter what he says, he has and will always be in charge.
18.She could give a better response than that to I and to my friends.
19.The category of killings which has come to be known as involuntary
manslaughter hasn't nothing to do with involuntariness.
20.The committee has not announced their decision yet.
21.The emphasis on revolution as ending every stage is, also, much more
definately stated than in earlier works.
22.The esential feature of these results has been amply confirmed.
23.The experiment by Norcross (1958) which used a slightly different version
of this procedure produced essentially the same outcome.
24.The first really useful realization of the Lie algebra of the Geroch group,
was formulated by Kinnersley and Chitre (1977, 1978a, b).
132
25.The more aggressive technologies, those which need a great deal of energy
and natural resources and cause extensive environmental pollution,
represent a percentage of industrial production.
26.Jones and Smith argues that the problem began in December 1942.
27.At that time there were hardly any scholarly accounts of the period in
question, the only really important biography was that of George V by
Harold Nicolson.
28.The task - one that involved pedalling on a stationery bicycle - was
equally demanding at all times.
29.They are, in fact, just the kind of thing the natural philosopher might be
interested in.
30.This has meant that elsewhere it has been very difficult to clearly assess
the extent of the problem.
31.Though he has generally been considered anti-intellectual and
disinterested in art theory, at this stage of his career he shared the
concerns of his fellows of the Petit Boulevard for principles of colour.
32.When they were discussing the historical development which led to
capitalism.
Press this if you want to check your answers:
^
133
Accuracy in EAP
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Accuracy in EAP: Answers
1. A rentcharge is the right to receive an annual sum out of the income of land every
year.
z fault: Grammar - duplication of meaning - “annual” = “every year”
z correction: A rentcharge is the right to receive an annual sum out of
the income of land.
z importance: Quite important - be careful.
2. All of the solutions considered so far have only involved Legendre functions of
even order.
z fault: Grammar - placing of “only”
z correction: All of the solutions considered so far have involved only
Legendre funtions of even order.
z importance: Not so important in speech, because the stress clears up
any possible misunderstandings (Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech &
Svartvik, 1985, pp. 605-606), but be careful when writing.
3. Before spelling out exactly what this means, it is worth first asking whether
translating machinery is necessarily irreversible.
z fault: Duplication “before” = “first”
z correction: Before spelling out exactly what this means, it is worth
asking whether translating machinery is necessarily irreversible.
z importance: Quite important - be careful.
Dangling Modifier:
4. Being in charge, the accusation was particularly annoying to me. Ving/Ved Phrase, SVO.
z fault: Dangling participle - the “accusation” was not in charge.
z correction: e.g. Being in charge, I found the accusation particularly
annoying.
z importance: Very important - can cause misunderstanding (Quirk,
Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik, 1985, p.652)- be careful.
5. Finally, it enables the therapist to assess the effectiveness of his own clinical skills
and, hopefully, to improve them in future.
z fault: “hopeful” is an adverb therefore limits meaning of verb, but in this
case it tells you nothing about the meaning of “improve”.
z correction: Finally, it enables the therapist to assess the effectiveness
of his own clinical skills and, it is hoped, to improve them in future.
z importance: Some people think this is important, but there are many
similar acceptable words - "naturally, amazingly, fortunately, happily,
regrettably" (Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999, pp.
856-857) - be careful.
6. He is a former student who I’ve not seen for years.
z fault: “who”is the object therefore should be“whom"
z correction: He is a former student whom I’ve not seen for years.
z importance: Not so important in the UK (Biber, Johansson, Leech,
Conrad & Finegan, 1999, p. 215).
7. He is an unskilled labourer and works at odd jobs, but he don't do any of them very
well.
z fault: Grammar - “don’t”
z correction: He is an unskilled labourer and works at odd jobs, but he
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Accuracy in EAP
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
第 2 頁，共 5 頁
doesn't do any of them very well.
z importance: Very important - check your verbs carefully.
However, there were other patients whose lives had ended by suicide.
z fault: Grammar - wrong word
z correction: However, there were other patients whose lives had ended
in suicide.
z importance: Very important - check your prepositions carefully.
I have now discussed the proposals for replacing all the computers with my
colleagues.
z fault: Grammar - meaning confused by word order
z correction: I have now discussed with my colleagues the proposals for
replacing all the computers.
z importance: Very important if it causes misunderstanding - check your
work carefully.
It is felt that less people would be put off attending with other problems if the
stigma of going to a clinic could be dispensed with.
z fault: Grammar - “less” is used for uncountable nouns; "fewer" for
countable.
z correction: It is felt that fewer people would be put off attending with
other problems if the stigma of going to a clinic could be dispensed
with.
z importance: Becoming more acceptable, especially in spoken English
(Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik, 1985, p. 263).
It is just possible that you are one of those rare people who has never seriously tried
to diet.
z fault: “has” should agree with “people”
z correction: It is just possible that you are one of those rare people who
have never seriously tried to diet.
z importance: Most people would not notice it, but be careful (Biber,
Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999, p. 190).
It may be open to challenge on certain grounds, i.e. if an emergency occurs.
z fault: Wrong use of “i.e.”
z correction: “e.g".
z importance: Very important - get it right.
It was the community in it’s purest form.
z fault: Punctuation:“it’s”=“it is”
z correction: It was the community in its purest form
z importance: Very important, but a very easy mistake to make - check
your punctuation carefully.
It was thought necessary to determine legally that someone had attained the age
when they were allowed to marry?
z fault: “someone” is singular; “they” is plural
z correction: It was thought necessary to determine legally that someone
had attained the age when he or she was allowed to marry?
z importance: Becoming more acceptable. Use it rather than be sexist. If
you don't like it, rephrase your sentence: "It was thought necessary to
determine legally that people had attained the age when they were
allowed to marry" (Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999,
pp. 316-317).
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15. Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744- 1829) had supposed that the main cause of
evolutionary change was because of the “inheritance of acquired character”.
z fault: Grammar - duplication - “cause” = “because of”.
z correction: Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744- 1829) had supposed that the
main cause of evolutionary change was the“inheritance of acquired
characters".
z importance: Very important - check your work carefully.
16. Kinship in these societies had to be completely different to what it was in capitalist
society.
z fault: Grammar - “to”
z correction: Kinship in these societies had to be completely different
from what it was in capitalist society.
z importance: Not a problem for me, but some people don't like it check your work carefully.
17. No matter what he says, he has and will always be in charge.
z fault: “he has” should be “he has been” - you can only join elemnts
with the same grammatical role with "and".
z correction: No matter what he says, he always has been and will
always be in charge.
z importance: Not so important in speaking, but be careful when you're
writing (Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999, p. 79).
18. She could give a better response than that to I and to my friends.
z fault: “me” not “I”
z correction: She could give a better response than that to me and to my
friends.
z importance: Very important - overcorrection. Some people are worried
about the use of "me" and use "I" too much.
19. The category of killings which has come to be known as involuntary manslaughter
hasn’t nothing to do with involuntariness.
z fault: Double negative
z correction: The category of killings which has come to be known as
involuntary manslaughter has nothing to do with involuntariness.
z importance: Very important when writing - check your work carefully.
20. The committee has not announced their decision yet.
z fault: Grammar - singular followed by a plural
z correction: The committee has not announced its decision yet. OR The
committee have not announced their decision yet.
z importance: Not so important in speaking, but be careful when you're
writing. There is a problem with these collective nouns, which are
grammatically singular but have a plural meaning. Some people
wouldd insist on "The committee has...". (Biber, Johansson, Leech,
Conrad & Finegan, 1999, pp. 331-332).
21. The emphasis on revolution as ending every stage is, also, much more definately
stated than in earlier works.
z fault: Spelling
z correction: "definitely"
z importance: Very important - proof-read carefully.
22. The esential feature of these results has been amply confirmed.
z fault: Spelling
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correction: “essential”
z importance: Very important - proof-read carefully.
The experiment by Norcross (1958) which used a slightly different version of this
procedure produced essentially the same outcome.
z fault: Punctuation - wrong commas
z correction: The experiment by Norcross (1958), which used a slightly
different version of this procedure, produced essentially the same
outcome.
z importance: Very important in English. The meaning with the commas
is different from the meaing without commas.
The first really useful realization of the Lie algebra of the Geroch group, was
formulated by Kinnersley and Chitre (1977, 1978a, b).
z fault: Punctuation - the comma interrupts the run of the sentence.
z correction: The first really useful realization of the Lie algebra of the
Geroch group was formulated by Kinnersley and Chitre (1977,
1978a,b).
z importance: Very important - you cannot separate the verb from the
noun phrase which functions as its subject.
The more aggressive technologies, those which need a great deal of energy and
natural resources and cause extensive environmental pollution, represent a
percentage of industrial production.
z fault: Meaningless use of “percentage”
z correction: The more aggressive technologies, those which need a
great deal of energy and natural resources and cause extensive
environmental pollution, represent a large percentage of industrial
production.
z importance: Not so important in speech but proof-read your written
work carefully.
Jones and Smith argues that the problem began in December 1942.
z fault: “Jones and Smith” is plural
z correction: Jones and Smith argue that the problem began in
December 1942.
z importance: Not so important in speech but proof-read your written
work carefully. (Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999, p.
182).
At that time there were hardly any scholarly accounts of the period in question, the
only really important biography was that of George V by Harold Nicolson.
z fault: Punctuation - run-on sentence - can’t join two sentences with a
comma.
z correction: At that time there were hardly any scholarly accounts of the
period in question. The only really important biography was that of
George V by Harold Nicolson. OR At that time there were hardly any
scholarly accounts of the period in question, the only really important
biography being that of George V by Harold Nicolson.
z importance: Very important. You cannot join two senttences with a
comma.
The task - one that involved pedalling on a stationery bicycle - was equally
demanding at all times.
z fault: “stationery” is letters
z
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
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correction: The task - one that involved pedalling on a stationary
bicycle - was equally demanding at all times.
z importance: Very important - proof-read carefully.
They are, in fact, just the kind of thing the natural philosopher might be interested
in.
z fault: Preposition at end of sentence.
z correction: They are, in fact, just the kind of thing in which the natural
philosopher might be interested.
z importance: Not a problem for me, but some people don't like it check your work carefully.
This has meant that elsewhere it has been very difficult to clearly assess the extent
of the problem.
z fault: Grammar - split infinitive
z correction: This has meant that elsewhere it has been very difficult to
assess clearly the extent of the problem.
z importance: Not a problem for me, but some people don't like it.
Putting a word between the "to" and the verb is called splitting the
infinitive. This is actually wrong because in English the infinitive is one
word so cannot be split. There are also situations when there is no
other possibility (Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik, 1985, pp. 496498). Fowler (1968, p. 579) distinguishes between five groups of
people: (1) those who neither know nor care what a split infinitive is (2)
those who do not know, but care very much (3) those who know and
condemn (4) those who know and approve and (5) those who know
and distinguish. Be careful if a (2) is reading your work.
Though he has generally been considered anti-intellectual and disinterested in art
theory, at this stage of his career he shared the concerns of his fellows of the Petit
Boulevard for principles of colour.
z fault: Wrong use of “disinterested” - check your dictionary.
z correction: “uninterested”
z importance: Very important if it causes confusion - check your work
carefully.
When they were discussing the historical development which led to capitalism.
z fault: Incomplete sentence
z correction: e.g. When they were discussing the historical development
which led to capitalism, they stress the structure between different
stages and the universality of the historical process.
z importance: Very important - check your work carefully.
z
29.
30.
31.
32.
^
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Student
Learning Centre
Location:
Telephone:
E-mail:
Internet:
Postal:
FLINDERS UNIVERSITY
Student Centre, Level One
61-8-8201 2518
Fax: 61-8-8201 3839
study.skills@flinders.edu.au
http://adminwww.flinders.edu.au/SLC/index.html
PO Box 2100 Adelaide, SA 5001
Improving your Sentence
Structure
If you want to improve your academic writing skills it is helpful if you have an
understanding of possible problems with sentence structure, so that you can
not only recognize effective sentences, but write them too.
A.
KINDS OF SENTENCES
There are three kinds of sentences:
1.
SIMPLE – A simple sentence consists of one main (or independent)
clause.
A clause is defined as a group of words containing both a subject and a verb.
An independent clause is a clause that can stand alone as a sentence.
Therefore, to be complete, a simple sentence must have at least one subject
and one verb:
The man went to the store.
subject verb
It may have a compound subject and/or a compound verb:
The man and his son went to the store and bought some milk.
compound subject
compound verb
2.
COMPOUND – A compound sentence has at least two main (or
independent) clauses, connected by a coordinating conjunction (and,
but, or, nor, for, so, yet). Each clause must have its own subject and
verb.
The man went to the store, and the storekeeper sold him some milk.
subject 1 verb 1
subject 2
verb 2
Sentence Structure updated by JCM 26/11/04 SLC page 1
139
3.
COMPLEX - a complex sentence has one main (or independent)
clause and one or more dependent (or subordinate) clauses.
A dependent clause contains both a subject and a verb, but cannot
stand alone as a sentence
Dependent clauses are connected by subordinating conjunctions such
as because, that, what, while, who, which, although, if, etc.
Dependent clauses can function in the sentence as nouns, adjectives
or adverbs:
She would not go to the party although she was invited several times.
independent clause
dependent clause
4.
TYPES OF CLAUSES
a.
Noun clauses function as nouns in the sentence and can be used as
subjects, objects, predicate nominatives and objects of prepositions.
What is most important is your work. (subject)
That critic writes that Al Purdy is the best poet in Canada. (object)
You are what you eat. (predicate nominative)
She is very suspicious about what he said. (object of preposition
about)
b.
Adjectival clauses start with a relative pronoun such as who, which
or that and function as adjectives. The relative pronoun refers to a
noun which usually directly precedes it.
The woman who bought the red dress is my aunt.
That dress, which is my favourite, cost a lot of money.
The problem that he solved was a difficult one.
Adjective clauses can be either essential or non-essential.
Essential
The word that must be used without commas to introduce a clause that
is essential to the sentence, as in the third example in 4b above.
Non-essential
The word which introduces a non-essential clause, which is preceded
and followed by a comma, as in the second example in 4b. The clause
is described as non-essential as it is not needed to identify the subject.
The bull that is in the pasture belongs to Joe.
This suggests that, of all the other bulls on the farm, the writer wants to
identify the one in the pasture as belonging to Joe.
Sentence Structure updated by JCM 26/11/04 SLC page 2
140
The bull, which is in the pasture, belongs to Joe.
This suggests that there is only one bull on the farm, so the writer is
giving non-essential, additional information by mentioning that it is in
the pasture.
•
Some grammar textbooks suggest which can be used for either essential
(without commas) or non-essential (with commas) information, whereas
others recommend using which for only non-essential information.
•
A pronoun must always refer specifically to one noun (or noun phrase).
The word which is often used incorrectly.
INCORRECT
Your essays should be
submitted on time, which is
one way to be a successful
student.
CORRECT
One essential requirement is
the timely submission of
essays, which is also one way
to be a successful student.
In the incorrect sentence above, the word which refers to neither time nor
essays. It is therefore better to rewrite the sentence.
c.
Adverbial clauses function as adverbs in the sentence, modifying
verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. They may tell how, why, when, where,
etc. Conjunctions used include although, after, if, because, while,
since, whether.
Stan is happy because he got a high mark for his history exam.
Although Bob is intelligent, he does not work very hard.
Sentence Structure updated by JCM 26/11/04 SLC page 3
141
B.
PROBLEMS WITH SENTENCES
Can you identify what is wrong with the following sentences and correct the
mistakes? The answers are at the end of the leaflet and include details on
which problem is addressed by each particular sentence, so that you can refer
to the relevant section.
Exercise 1
a)
The university was closed it was a public holiday.
b)
It was raining heavily. The students were late for class. The lecturer
was also late. Therefore the lecture was short. Usually it lasted for two
hours.
c)
Hardly nobody attended the meeting.
d)
We wrote the report and give it to the lecturer.
e)
Because it was on the top floor of the library.
f)
The research assistant who is in the office next door is investigating the
use of English words which are used in Portuguese as it is spoken in
Portugal rather than in other countries.
g)
The study of approaches to learning involves detailed research and
you look at all available evidence.
h)
Looking into the hole, the researchers found a wombat.
i)
As we crossed the courtyard you could see the museum.
j)
All the new students passed the course, but they failed.
k)
The student won a scholarship, and he came to Australia.
l)
Every nurse know that he or she will have to give a ward report at
some stage.
PROBLEMS EXAMINED
1.
SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
A sentence fragment is not a complete sentence. It usually lacks either a
subject or a verb or both.
INCORRECT
For example, three dogs and a goat.
(no verb – what did the animals do?)
CORRECT
For example, three dogs and a goat
would make your life more
interesting.
(verb added)
INCORRECT
Studying too hard at the weekends.
CORRECT
Jack was studying too hard at the
weekends.
(no subject – who was studying?)
(subject added)
Sentence Structure updated by JCM 26/11/04 SLC page 4
142
2.
RUN-ON SENTENCES: Fused sentences and comma splices
A run-on sentence is one in which two or more independent clauses are
inappropriately joined. Remember that the length of a sentence does not
determine whether it is a run-on sentence; a sentence that is correctly
punctuated and correctly joined can be extremely long. In a fused sentence,
clauses run into each other with no punctuation:
INCORRECT
The experiment failed it had been left unobserved for too long.
The error of placing only a comma between two complete sentences, without
a connecting word such as and, but, because, or without correct punctuation,
is called a comma splice:
INCORRECT
The experiment failed, it had been left unobserved for too long.
To correct a fused sentence or a comma splice error, you can use either a full
stop, semi-colon, colon, coordinating conjunction or subordinating
conjunction:
CORRECT
The experiment failed. It had been left unobserved for too long.
The experiment failed; it had been left unobserved for too long.
The experiment failed: it had been left unobserved for too long.
The experiment had been left unobserved for too long, so it failed.
The experiment failed because it had been left unobserved for too long.
A comma splice also occurs when commas are used before conjunctive
adverbs (therefore, however, nevertheless, moreover, etc.) connecting two
sentences.
INCORRECT
The experiment had been left
unobserved for too long,
therefore it failed.
CORRECT
The experiment had been left
unobserved for too long;
therefore, it failed.
The experiment had been left
unobserved for too long.
Therefore it failed.
When the conjunctive adverb is within the clause rather than at the beginning,
place it between commas:
CORRECT
He wasn’t prepared to defend a client who was guilty; he could be
persuaded, however, to accept a bribe.
Sentence Structure updated by JCM 26/11/04 SLC page 5
143
3.
LOOSE SENTENCES
A loose sentence may result if you use too many imprecise connectives, such
as and, when other conjunctions would be more exact:
INCORRECT
John had a weight problem, and he dropped out of school.
What is the intended connection here: John had a weight problem so he
dropped out of school, or because he dropped out of school? We cannot tell.
A loose sentence also results from the inclusion of many phrases and clauses
in no particular order:
INCORRECT
In the event that we get the contract, we must be ready by 1 June
with the necessary personnel and equipment to get the job done,
so with this end in mind a staff meeting, which all group managers
are expected to attend, is scheduled for 12 February.
Writing the passage as several sentences may be more effective:
CORRECT
In the event that we get the contract, we must be ready by 1 June
with the necessary personnel and equipment to get the job done.
With this end in mind a staff meeting is scheduled for 12 February.
All group managers are expected to attend.
4.
CHOPPY SENTENCES
A succession of short sentences, without linking words, results in choppy
sentences.
INCORRECT
The results we got were
inconsistent.
The program
obviously contains an error. We
need to talk to Paul Davis. We will
ask him to review the program.
CORRECT
We will ask Paul Davis to review
the program, since it gave us
inconsistent results.
Sentence Structure updated by JCM 26/11/04 SLC page 6
144
5.
EXCESSIVE SUBORDINATION
Excessive subordination is not an effective substitute for choppiness.
INCORRECT
Doug thought he was prepared
although he failed the examination
which meant that he had to repeat
the course before he could
graduate.
6.
CORRECT
Although Doug thought he was
prepared, he failed the examination.
This meant that he had to repeat the
course before he could graduate.
PARALLEL STRUCTURE
Parts of a sentence which are in sequence must all follow the same
grammatical or structural principle.
INCORRECT
I like to swim, to sail, and rowing.
7.
CORRECT
I like to swim, to sail and to row. OR
I like swimming, sailing and rowing.
DANGLING OR MISRELATED PARTICIPLES
A dangling or misrelated participle occurs when the noun or pronoun that a
participle phrase should qualify does not appear in the sentence, or appears
in the wrong place.
INCORRECT
After trying in vain to contact you by phone, this letter
will explain the reasons for the decision.
Who was trying in vain? You or the letter? The correct version of the
above sentence is:
CORRECT
I tried in vain to contact you by phone, so this letter
will explain the reasons for the decision.
In the following example it is not clear which noun is being qualified by the
participle phrase:
INCORRECT
Flying high in the sky, I saw the plane.
Who is flying, I or the plane? The following examples are more precise:
Sentence Structure updated by JCM 26/11/04 SLC page 7
145
CORRECT
I saw the plane (which was) flying high in the sky.
As I was flying high in the sky, I saw the plane.
8.
DOUBLE NEGATIVES
If we use two negatives in a sentence we are actually expressing a positive,
whether we mean to or not.
INCORRECT
She could not run no faster.
This actually means she could run faster.
The following sentences are correct:
CORRECT
She could not run any faster.
She could run no faster.
Words that have negative implication such as never, nowhere, only, scarcely,
hardly and barely should not be used with another negative.
INCORRECT
Don’t never forget these rules or you won’t go nowhere.
There are two double negatives in the above sentence, so that it really
means ‘Forget these rules or you will go somewhere’!
The following sentence is correct:
CORRECT
Don't ever forget these rules, or you won't go anywhere.
9.
MISSING ANTECEDENT
A pronoun is meaningless, or at least ambiguous, if the antecedent (word or
words that the pronoun represents) is not made clear.
INCORRECT
The whole soccer team apologised but he was too angry to
listen.
Sentence Structure updated by JCM 26/11/04 SLC page 8
146
Who was too angry?
CORRECT
The whole soccer team apologised to the referee, but he
was too angry to listen.
The pronoun it is the one most likely to have a missing antecedent.
INCORRECT
He became ill and died of it.
(. . . of what? Bronchitis? Water on the knee?)
CORRECT
He became ill with pneumonia and died of it.
10.
SHIFTS IN POINTS OF VIEW
Awkward and confusing sentences frequently result from unnecessary shifts
in person, number, tense or voice.
a
Person
INCORRECT
As y o u went up Red Hill w e could see the whole of
Canberra spread out below us.
CORRECT
As we went up Red Hill we could see the whole of
Canberra spread out below us.
As you went up Red Hill you could see the whole of
Canberra spread out below you.
b
Number
INCORRECT
Each workman has his instructions and know how to
take safety measures.
CORRECT
Each workman has his instructions and knows how to
take safety measures.
Sentence Structure updated by JCM 26/11/04 SLC page 9
147
c
Tense
INCORRECT
The soccer coach called us over and then suggests a 5 km run.
CORRECT
The soccer coach called us over and then suggested a 5 km run.
(adapted from Improving your Sentence Structure 1993, The Learning Resource Centre,
University of Guelph, reprinted for the ACUE, University of Adelaide, by permission of the Coordinator, Learning Resource Centre, University of Guelph, 8 January 1995)
Answers to exercise 1
The numbers in brackets refer to the relevant section in the ‘Common
Problems’ pages.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
The university was closed; it was a public holiday. or
The university was closed. It was a public holiday. or
The university was closed because it was a public holiday.
(2) Run-on sentence
Because it was raining heavily the students were late for class and so
was the lecturer. Therefore the lecture, which usually lasted for two
hours, was short. (4) Choppy sentence
Hardly anybody attended the meeting. (8) Double negative
We wrote the report and gave it to the lecturer. (10c) Tense problem
Because it was on the top floor of the library, they had to use the lift.
(1) Sentence fragment
The research assistant next door is investigating the use of English
words in European Portuguese. (5) Excessive subordination
The study of approaches to learning involves detailed research and an
examination of all available evidence. (6) Parallel structure
While they were looking into the hole, the researchers found a
wombat. (7) Misrelated participle
As we crossed the courtyard we could see the museum.
(10a) Shift in person
All the new students passed the course, but the others failed.
(9) Missing antecedent
The student won a scholarship, so he came to Australia.
(3) Loose sentence
Every nurse knows that he or she will have to give a ward report at
some stage. (10b) Shift in number
Sentence Structure updated by JCM 26/11/04 SLC page 10
148
Sentence Structure Exercises
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/indexexercises.htm
 Avoiding Fragments
 Avoiding Fragments - exercise 2
 Avoiding Fragments - exercise 3












Avoiding Comma Splices and Fused Sentences - exercise 2
Avoiding Comma Splices and Fused Sentences - exercise 3
Avoiding Comma Splices and Fused Sentences - exercise 4
Sentence Patterns
Sentence Patterns - exercise 2
Sentence Patterns - exercise 3
Sentence Pattern Transformations
Sentence Pattern Transformations 2 (multiple transformations)
Sentence Pattern Transformations 3 (multiple transformations)
Active-Passive Voice
Active-Passive Voice - exercise 2
Active-Passive Voice - exercise 3
Usage Exercises
http://wwwnew.towson.edu/ows/indexexercises.htm











 Pronoun Reference - exercise 3
 Pronoun Reference - exercise 4 (this, that, which, it)
 Verb Tense Consistency
 Verb Tense Consistency - exercise 2
Subject-Verb Agreement
Subject-Verb Agreement - exercise 2
Subject-Verb Agreement - exercise 3
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement - exercise 2
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement - exercise 3
Pronoun Case
Pronoun Case - exercise 2
Pronoun Case - exercise 3
Pronoun Reference
Pronoun Reference - exercise 2
149
 Verb Tense Consistency - exercise 3
 Parallel Sentence Structure
 Parallel Sentence Structure - exercise 2













Faulty / Incomplete Comparisons
Faulty / Incomplete Comparisons - exercise 2
Avoiding Shifts
Avoiding Shifts - exercise 2
Misplaced Modifiers
Misplaced Modifiers - exercise 2
Misplaced Modifiers - exercise 3
Dangling Modifiers
Dangling Modifiers - exercise 2
Dangling Modifiers - exercise 3
Miscellaneous Usage Errors
Miscellaneous Usage Errors - exercise 2
Miscellaneous Usage Errors - exercise 3
150
Proof-reading written English.
When writing English for academic purposes it is important to be accurate. It is,
however, very difficult to produce language which is intelligent, appropriate and
accurate at the same time. It is therefore important to break down the task into
stages: an ideas stage and an accuracy stage. In the accuracy stage, all your ideas
are on the paper and you can concentrate on accuracy. You can carefully read
your work and correct your mistakes. This is proof-reading.
However, in the same way that it is difficult to concentrate on ideas and accuracy at
the same time, it is difficult to check your work for all kinds of mistake at the same
time. You therefore need to check your work several times, for different purposes.
"Je n'ai fait celle-ci plus longue que parce que je n'ai
pas eu le loisir de la faire plus courte." (I have made
this letter longer than usual, simply because I have not
had the time to make it shorter.) Blaise Pascal, Lettres
Provinciales XVI, 1656.
For example, first check your verbs, then check your prepositions, next check your
articles etc. If you practise some of the exercises here, it willl help you find your
own mistakes.
Click here to see something that was not proof-read and here for my favourite one.
Proof-read the following text: How many mistakes can you find?
Comparative study of animal help to show how man's space require are influenced
in his environment. In animals we can observing the direction, the rate, and the
extent of changes of behaviour that follow changes in space available to them as we
can never hope to do in men. For one thing, by using animals it am possible to
acelerate time, since animal generations is relatively short. Scientist can, at forty
years, observe four hundred forty generations of mice, while has in the same span
151
of time seen only two generations of his own kind. And, off course, he can be more
detatched about the fate of animal.
Press this if you want to check your answers:
Try this exercise.
^
Verbs | Prepositions | Word Order | Nouns | Adjective/Adverb | Articles | Spelling |
Punctuation | Correct Word
^
152
Proof-reading: Verbs.
Many mistakes are simply avoided by proof-reading.
1. Present tense.
The present tense is the most common tense in academic writing. One very common, but
easily corrected, mistake is the "s" in present tense verbs.
Read the following text and notice the present tense verbs:
During the past quarter-century this power has not only increased to one of disturbing
magnitude but it has changed in character. The most alarming of all man's assaults upon
the environment is the contamination of air, earth, rivers, and sea with dangerous and even
lethal materials. This pollution is for the most part irrecoverable; the chain of evil it
initiates not only in the world that must support life but in living tissues is for the most part
irreversible. In this now universal contamination of the environment, chemicals are the
sinister and little-recognized partners of radiation in changing the very nature of the world
- the very nature of its life. Strontium 90, released through nuclear explosions into the air,
comes to earth in rain or drifts down as fallout, lodges in soil, enters into the grass or corn
or wheat grown there, and in time takes up its abode in the bones of a human being, there
to remain until his death. Similarly, chemicals sprayed on croplands or forests or gardens
lie long in soil, entering into living organisms, passing from one to another in a chain of
poisoning and death. Or they pass mysteriously by underground streams until they emerge
and, through the alchemy of air and sunlight, combine into new forms that kill vegetation,
sicken cattle, and work unknown harm on those who drink from once-pure wells. As
Albert Schweitzer has said, 'Man can hardly even recognize the devils of his own creation.'
(Rachel Carson, Silent spring.)
Complete the following table:
this power has
it
has
is
153
intitiates
is
are
comes
drifts
lodges
enters
takes
lie
pass
emerge
combine
kill
sicken
work
drink
has
can
Try this exercise.
^
2. Progressive forms.
It is also easy to make mistakes with the progressive form of the verbs. Read the following
text and notice the verbs.
154
The photograph of the three bright, good-looking young people in the Army recruitment ad
catches the eye. All three have a certain flair, and one knows just by looking at the picture
that they are enjoying life and glad they joined up. They are typical Americans, symbols of
the kind of people the modern Army is looking for. The one closest to the camera is a
white male. His name, as can be seen from the neat identification tag pinned to the right
pocket of his regulation blouse, is Spurgeon. Behind him and slightly to the left is a young
black man. He is wearing a decoration of some kind, and his name is Sort-. Perhaps it is
Sorter or Sortman - only the first four letters show. A young woman, who is also white,
stands behind Spurgeon on the other side. She is smiling and her eyes shine; she looks
capable. She is probably wearing a name tag too, but because Spurgeon is standing
between her and the camera, her name is hidden. She is completely anonymous.
From Words and women by Casey Smith & Kate Swift.
3. Past tense.
Use of the past tense is common in introduction sections. Read the following text and notice
the verbs.
Until about a decade ago, theoretical and applied linguistics developed side by side, to their
mutual benefit. Though relatively few language teachers were linguists, most linguists
were also language teachers, and they set out with missionary zeal to prove that linguistics
had a place in the language classroom. Applied linguistics has a long respectable history. It
did not suddenly burst into existence on Pearl Harbor Day. Henry Sweet's The Practical
Study of Languages appeared in 1899, Otto Jespersen's How to Teach a Foreign Language
in 1904. Leonard Bloomfield's An Introduction to the Study of Language was published in
1914, nineteen years before his major theoretical book Language, and thirty-eight years
before his Out-line Guide for the Practical Study of Foreign Languages, a work that still
appears on all reading lists for language teachers. During the 1940's and early 50's nearly
every major linguist authored at least one language text-book. Bloch, Hockett, Haas, Fries,
Twaddell - the bibliography for those years reads like a roster of the Linguistic Society.
Try this exercise.
4. Passives
Passive verbs are very common in descriptions of methodology. Read the following text and
notice the verb forms.
155
We followed the procedures for gathering think-aloud data suggested by Hosenfeld (1976).
Two research assistants, both Asian female graduate students in TESL with near-native
command of English, collected the data. After an initial training session, subjects were
asked to do tasks as they normally would, except they were instructed to "think aloud." The
two research assistants remained as unobtrusive as possible except to probe subjects’
thoughts if they were not being expressed, and to answer any questions subjects had
concerning task procedures or the meaning of vocabulary. The research assistants were
instructed not to provide other assistance. All sessions were audiotaped and transcribed. In
analyzing the data, we identified and classified subjects' strategies using a taxonomy
developed by Rubin (1981), which we modified to more accurately reflect strategies
actually appearing in our data. The major categories are shown in Figure 1.
Since data were collected under experimental conditions, results do not necessarily reflect
what students would do under ordinary circumstances; that is, experimental conditions may
have degraded or enhanced the number of strategies they used. However, we assume that
strategies were not created for the experiments.
Try this exercise.
5. Verb complementation.
In English, verbs occur in different patterns. For example:
V -ing
The person is better able to start tackling his problems.
V to infinitive
Women in both categories have wanted to protect traditional
professionalism.
V infinitive
The computer can help solve the problem.
V (that) sentence
The professor agreed (that) the project had possibilities.
V n -ing
My supervisor hates me using that computer.
V n to infinitive
The court ordered the judge to accept the plea.
V n infinitive
Last month saw inflation rise to 8%.
V n (that) sentence She told me (that) he planned to be away all night.
156
V n -ed
He had to have the tooth extracted.
Different verbs occur in different patterns. You need to learn which patterns the verbs in your
subject occur in. Grammar books do not usually help. A good dictionary with example
sentences will help.
Click here for some general examples.
^
157
Proof-reading: Prepositions.
Introduction
Prepositions are very common in academic writing. They are more difficult to correct, but
many mistakes are simply avoided by proof-reading. There are some rules you can learn, but
it is very useful to remember typical phrases that occur in your subject.
Try these exercises:
1. General prepositions
2. Business prepositional verbs
3. Business phrasal verbs
4. Business object+prepositional verbs
5. Law prepositions 1
6. Law prepositions 2
^
158
Proof-reading: Word order.
Introduction
Many mistakes are simply avoided by proof-reading.
Whenever you learn a new word, it is useful to learn typical situations in which it occurs. You
need to know in which subjects it is used, what kinds of texts it is used in, and which other
words it typically occurs with. Look at the example sentences in your dictionary and find
examples of the uses of the word in your text-books.
You can use the Internet to help you with this. Type any word or phrase - use "quotation
marks" to search for a phrase - into a search engine and examine the results. You will often
find hundreds of examples of the use of the word or phrase. You need to look at the
examples carefully to see what kind of writing they are from. There are, though, many
examples of academic, business and government texts on the Internet and examples from
these sources should be useful.
Google Search
The Grammar Safari or WebCorp web-sites will help you with this.
Try these exercises.
Law
Law Verbs a-b
Law Verbs c-d
Law Verbs e-f
Law Verbs g-i
Law Verbs l-o
159
Law Verbs p-q
Law Verbs r-s
Law Verbs t-w
Business
Business Verbs ab
Business Verbs cd
Business Verbs e-f
Business Verbs g-i
Business Verbs l-o
Business Verbs pq
Business Verbs r-s
Business Verbs tw
^
160
Proof-reading: Nouns.
Introduction
Many mistakes are simply avoided by proof-reading.
1. Check your plurals.
Read the following sentences and notice the plural nouns. See, for example, Biber,
Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan (1999, chap. 4.5) for more information.
●
●
●
●
●
There are certain problems associated with the concept of a delinquent subculture.
If a student of British politics demanded some precepts to guide his research, the
compiler would have little difficulty about the first and most significant maxim in the
creed.
Nicolson's account is far too discreet, and obscures some of the most important
features of the crisis.
The three main works are all rather slight when they come to tackle the complexities
of the Liberal attitude during the crisis.
The first step towards understanding the crisis of 1931 is to distinguish between
different types of coalition government.
Try this exercise.
2. Check your countable/uncountable nouns.
Read the following text and notice the countable and uncountable nouns. See, for example,
Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan (1999, chap. 4.3) for more information.
The resources of society consist not only of the free gifts of nature, such as land, forests,
and minerals, but also of human capacity, both mental and physical, and all sorts of manmade aids to further production such as tools, machinery and buildings.
An introduction to positive economics. R. G. Lipsey.
161
Proof-reading: Adjective/adverb.
Introduction
Although adjectives and adverbs are quite complicated, there are some simple differences
which are often confused. These mistakes can simply be avoided by proof-reading.
Adjectives have many uses but one main use is as a modifer in a noun phrase. For example,
a rich man, or a difficult exam. There are different categories of adverb with different
functions but one main category is the degree adverb and typically it modifies an adjective
(extremely difficult) or a verb phrase (he walks quickly).
Adjectives and adverbs often come in pairs (quick/quickly, easy/easily, strange/strangely,
direct/directly) and these are often confused.
Read the following text and observe the adjectives and adverbs:
Peasant populations are often highly conservative and are suspicious of those outside their
small circle of neighbours and kinfolk. Well-intentioned government health officers, peace
corps volunteers, and development technicians are frequently unable to secure the
confidence of the peasant communities that they wish to help. Technical assistance
specialists conclude, therefore, that the prime obstacle to development is the peasants'
irrational aversion to novelty. In most cases, however, this conclusion depends upon
wrenching the peasants' conservative values and attitudes out of the colonial and
postcolonial context in which such attitudes and values are realistic and perfectly rational.
(Marvin Harris, Culture, people, nature.
Try exercise 1, exercise 2 and exercise 3.
^
162
Proof-reading: Articles.
Introduction
Many mistakes are simply avoided by proof-reading.
Articles are more difficult to correct. There are some rules you can learn, but it is very useful
to remember typical phrases that occur in your subject. The most common article in academic
writing is "the".
Read the following text and observe the articles:
The economy is a bit like the weather - there's a lot of it about. In going about the business
of simply living, the average human being cannot afford to ignore the existence of either,
for both exert a profound and continuous impact on his behaviour. Surely mankind should
count itself most fortunate in that throughout its perennial struggle to come to terms with
the vicissitudes of both economy and weather, it has been able to call upon the expertise of
two bands of gallant professionals, the economists and the meteorologists, who have elected
to devote their lives selflessly to the arduous task of finding out exactly what makes the
economy and the weather tick. But what do these self-appointed secular saints discover
when they eagerly render their advice to the Common Man on such crucial matters
concerning human well-being? Instead of the profusion of gratitude which they might
reasonably expect, they find themselves relegated, in the public imagination, to a position
normally reserved for the purveyors of patent medicine or the alchemists of medieval times.
True, they receive a certain amount of begrudged awe, doubtless because of their ability to
come up with important-sounding phrases such as 'technological input coefficient' and
'occluded frontal systems', but such respect as is conferred by the impressive vocabulary is
more than outweighed by suspicion, by incredulity, even by ridicule. Their prognostications
are accepted with largish pinches of salt. Jokes are made at their expense. All of this might
be expected to give rise to a certain degree of resentment on the part of people who, after
all, are only trying to help.
In my experience, most of my students' mistakes can be corrected by using one rule:
Countable nouns need either an article, if they're singular, or an "s", if they are plural.
Identify the countable nouns in this text.
163
Four students - a chemist, a physicist, a mathematician and a humanities graduate - were
each given a barometer and told to measure the height of a church tower. The chemist
knew all about gases. He measured the air pressures at the top and bottom of the tower
with his barometer and from the barely perceptible difference produced an answer of
"anywhere between 0 and 60m". The physicist was used to handling expensive equipment
casually. He dropped his barometer off the tower and timed its fall, calculating the height
as 27-33m. The mathematician compared the length of the tower's shadow with that of the
barometer, arriving at a height of 30-30.5m. The humanities graduate sold the barometer,
bought the verger a few drinks with the money, and soon found out that the tower was
30.4m tall exactly.
Press this if you want to check your answers:
Answers
Try this exercise.
^
164
Articles
The indefinite article is used with singular countable nouns. It narrows down the reference
of the following noun to a single member of a class. Corresponding to the indefinite article
with singular countable nouns, we find the zero article with uncountables and with plural
countable nouns. The zero article refers to a whole class rather than an individual. The
definite article combines with both countable and uncountable nouns. It specifies that the
referent of the noun phrase is assumed to be known to the speaker and the addressee
(Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999, pp.260-270).
The use of articles depends mainly on three things (See Murphy, 1985, pp. 138-155;
Hewings, 1999, pp. 112-125 for practice):
1. It depends whether or not the noun is countable (book)or uncountable (information).
2. It depends whether we mean things in general or particular examples.
3. When we refer to particular examples, it depends whether they are definite or
indefinite.
1. Countable/uncountable.
There are a number of biographies of Stanley Baldwin, the Conservative leader.
The book casts an enormous amount of light on the inner life of the
party.
Students do not like examinations. It is useful information.
●
●
●
●
a/an can only be used with singular countable nouns.
the can be used with any kind of noun.
plural nouns and uncountable nouns can be used with no article.
singular nouns cannot be used with no article.
a/an
the
singular countable a book the book
no article
x
165
plural countable
x
the books
uncountable
x
the information information
books
2. Things in general.
When we refer to a whole class of things (e.g. all music or all business), we usually use a
plural countable noun or uncountable noun with no article.
Errors re more frequent at night than during the day.
The intake of food and water should be constant throughout the day.
I 'm studying business.
He likes books.
When we use an article with a plural or countable noun, the meaning is particular, not
general.
He reads books and magazines. (all books and all magazines - books and
magazines in general).
BUT
He likes the books (in the library) and the magazines (in the shop).
3. Referring to particular things.
The has a definite meaning. We use the definite article when the listener knows what is being
referred to.
You should read the text book.
How was the exam?
BUT
166
I've got an exam tomorrow.
She’s studying to be a lawyer.
Things can be particular, but indefinite.
Could I have a piece of paper?
Would you like a drink?
Useful rules
1. Do not use the (with plural and uncountable nouns) to refer to things in general.
Meat is bad for health. (NOT: The meat is bad for health.)
2. Do not use singular countable nouns without articles.
the classroom, a classroom (NOT: classroom)
3. Us a/an to describe what people’s professions or jobs are.
She’s a lecturer. (NOT: She’s lecturer.)
Special rules
1. Common expressions with no article after preposition.
I’m going to school.
I work at home.
What did you have for dinner?
2. Genitive possessives.
Have you seen John’s coat?
167
We should discuss America’s economic problems.
3. We can use the with many adjectives to talk about people in general.
the rich, the poor, the unemployed, the blind, the deaf, the disabled, the young,
the old.
Or with some nationalities to refer to the people of that country.
the French, the British, the Irish, the Japanese, the Chinese
4. Place names
We use the with:
Seas
the Pacific, the Mediterranean
Mountain groups the Himalayas, the Andes, the Alps
Island Groups
the West Indies, the Canary Islands, the British Isles
Regions
the Middle East, the Far East, the south of China, the north of France
Rivers
the Nile, the Thames
Deserts
the Sahara
Hotels
the Grand Hotel, the Hilton
Cinemas
the Odeon, the ABC
Theatres
the National Theatre
Institutions
the House of Commons, the National Trust
168
We use no article with:
Continents
Asia, Europe, Africa, South America
Counties
Hertfordshire, Kent, Oxfordshire, Devon
States
Texas, Alabama, California
Towns
Hertford, St Albans, Watford
Except: e.g. The Hague
Streets
London Road
Mountains
Everest, Etna, Helvelyn
Lakes
Lake Windermere, Lake Superior
Countries
Thailand, China
Except: e.g. The People’s Republic of China, the United
Kingdom, The United States of America, The Netherlands
Shops and banks
Lloyds Bank, Harrods, Macdonalds
Principal buildings of a town Oxford University, Salisbury Cathedral, Luton Airport.
Back
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EAP Accuracy
Proof-reading: Spelling.
When writing English for academic purposes it is important to spell accurately. It is, however,
very difficult to produce language which is intelligent, appropriate and correctly spelled at the
same time. It is therefore important, after you have finished writing to carefully read your
work and correct your mistakes. This is proof-reading.
There are several different kinds of mistakes that might appear to be spelling mistakes.
1. Words spelled incorrectly.
2. Spelling of words pronounced the same.
3. Word confusion.
Example
Correction
He left imediately
1 The animals are agresive.
He left immediately.
The animals are aggressive.
The students went to there class.
She has brown hare.
2
Wear is the library?
The students went to their class.
She has brown hair.
Where is the library?
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EAP Accuracy
The library is a quite place to work.
A pesonnnel computer is useful.
3 Shanghai is bigger then London.
I finished at least.
The library is a quiet place to work.
A personal computer is useful.
Shanghai is bigger than London.
I finished at last.
Try this exercise.
For more information and exercises on spelling, click here.
^
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Writing: Spelling
Spelling
It is often suggested that the English spelling system is illogical, irregular and out of date. It is
true that there are some idiosyncratic features of English spelling - often with historical
explanations - but in general, most English words are spelled quite logically. It is only if an
attempt is made to draw a 1:1 correspondence between sound and spelling that these features
seem to be irregular. English spelling is not a direct representation of sounds. Some features of
English spelling are only irregular when attempts are made to relate letters to sounds. If other
factors are considered they are much more regular. Here are some examples:
The English spelling system is related to grammar.
The words "dog", "cat" and "horse" can all be made plural by adding an "s" - "dogs", "cats" &
"horses". But if the words are spoken, then the plural "s" is pronounced in different ways ,
,
. The written plural "s" is pronounced in a different way ,
,
.
Should they therefore be spelled differently?
The written "s" might not tell you how to pronounce the words, but it does give you important
grammatical information. In this case it indicates that the word is a plural.
Similarly, the words "walk", "show" and "want" can all be put into the past by adding "ed" "walked" "showed" & "wanted" but again these words are then pronounced differently ,
,
. The written past tense "ed" is pronounced differently
,
,
. Once more, the "ed" might not tell you how to
pronounce the words, but it does give you important grammatical information.
English spelling also gives grammatical information. For example many abstract nouns are
spelled with "tion" - "imagination" and "pronunciation".
The English spelling system is related to meaning.
If we take related words like "medicine" and "medical"and
.
Both of these words have a "c" in them: "medicine" and "medical". However in one case, the "c"
is pronounced
and in the other
and
.
In English, words that look the same tend to mean the same, even if they are pronounced
differently. Other examples are the "a" in "nation" and "national"; the "i" in "crime" and
"criminal"; the "o" in "democrat" and "democracy" etc.
There are also pairs of words like "sign" and "signal", "knowledge" and "acknowledge",
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Writing: Spelling
"academic" and "academy", and "bomb" and "bombardier". Being aware of the relationship can
help spelling.
Conversely "there" and "their" have different meanings. "There" and "their" are homophones same pronunciation but different meanings and, therefore, spellings. Other examples are:
"pare", "pair" and "pear"; "male" and "mail"; "cue" and "queue"; "ewe" and "you"; "plane" and
"plain"; "summery" and "summary"; "formerly" and "formally" etc. In English words that look
different tend to have different meanings.
Click here for a homophone exercise.
The English spelling system is related to position in the word.
George Bernard Shaw argued that the word
could be spelled "ghoti" in English.
could be spelled "gh" as in "enough";
could be spelled "o" as in "women", and
could
be spelled "ti" as in "nation". Was he right? No. 'gh' is only pronounced
at ends of words "tough" "cough" etc. or after vowels as in "draught." At the beginning of words "gh" as in "ghost"
and "ghetto" can only be pronounced
. "o" is only pronounced
in "women" and "ti" is
only pronounced
with "on" in
as in "nation". It cannot be separated.
Therefore
could not be spelled "ghoti". It can also be argued that "fish" cannot be
spelled any other way.
These are a good example of how the spelling of English words is more closely related to
aspects of language other than the pronunciation. It is related to meaning and grammar. Taking
this into account can help with spelling in English.
However, if you can pronounce a word but do not know how to spell it, when you have thought
about the meaning, click here for some help.
^
Continue to:
Advice
Pronunciation -> spelling
Common difficulties
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Punctuation
The sentence and the full stop
The full stop is the most important punctuation mark. It shows the end of the sentence.
The English language also uses capital letters at the beginning of sentences.
For example:
The first schools in what is now British Columbia were established by the
Hudson’s Bay Company in about 1853 on Vancouver Island. The present
public school system originated with the Public School Act of 1872.
Education is free and compulsory for children ages 7 to 15. Schools are
funded by the provincial government and local property taxes. The province’s
75 school districts are administered by locally elected boards.
Try this exercise: Exercise 1
^
The comma
The comma is the most important punctuation mark after the full stop. Its main use is for
separating parts of sentences. Commas function in five main ways:
1. Before or after adverbial clauses and groups.
2. Before various connectives to join two independent clauses.
3. To separate some non-defining phrases from the rest of the sentence.
4. To separate words, groups and clauses in a series.
5. To separate adjectives that separately modify the same noun.
1. Before or after adverbial clauses and phrases
For example:
Recently, the number of service enterprises in wealthier free-market
economies has grown rapidly.
Subsequently, the aircraft underwent numerous design changes before it was
incorporated into the Type 4 jet aircraft.
To visit his brother, he drove through the night.
After dinner, he walked around the town.
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Although it might seem highly unlikely, there are considerable similarities
between the male and female body.
Similar feelings influenced middle-class shareholders and directors, too.
When the activity of our kidneys is considered, a bed-time drink does not
waken us by filling our bladders during the night.
Some businesses only seek to earn enough to cover their operating costs,
however.
Because stocks are generally negotiable, stockholders have the right to assign
or transfer their shares to another individual.
After the war, the United States Army occupied Japan and ordered the
dismantling of Mitsubishi and other Japanese conglomerates.
If we work at night and sleep during the daytime, we have difficulty in
adjusting our habits.
The patient's perception of his environment and his response to it is likely to
be grossly reduced, since he might be unconscious or paralysed, for example.
2. Before various connectives to join two independent clauses
(and, but, or, so nor, for yet)
For example:
What we require is a National Emergency Government, but no two men I
meet can agree how this can be formed.
The house badly needed painting, and the roof needed repairing.
Lord Knollys was not particularly pleased with these proposals, nor were
other members of the Cabinet.
A loose stretch would wrinkle too easily with successive washes, or might
even wrinkle on a damp day.
There was no Canadian Consulate in Paris at that time, so we had to go to the
American Consulate for ours.
It was clearly not an all-party government, yet it was something more than a
mere Conservative front.
These experiments led to theories about how development was controlled in
terms of cell and tissue properties, but it was very difficult to link these
theories with gene action.
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3. To separate certain phrases from the rest of the sentence
For example:
Malaria, once a widespread disease, is under control.
Day-to-day television, in its regularity and its availability, seems regulated by
repetition and modulated by acceptable difference.
Mr Clinton, the President, said that he would give his full support to the
proposal.
The Conservatives, who had gained more votes than Labour in the 1929
general election, were only the second largest party.
The chairman, getting to his feet, began to describe his plans.
The opposition parties, however, were unwilling to accept any programme of
economies which did not involve a cut in the standard rate of benefit.
A nap after lunch, on the other hand, will help you to feel less tired on the
evening.
In the United States, for example, many people buy and sell goods and
services as their primary occupations.
The prestige of the Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, gave it an influence
far greater than its mere numbers would have warranted.
Some of the top clubs, who had never liked the system, were worried about
the growing tendency of the very best professionals to leave the country to
play in Italy and elsewhere.
4. To separate words, phrases and clauses in a series
For example:
Many U.S. firms attempt to tap emerging markets by pursuing business in
China, India, Latin America, and Russia and other Eastern European
countries.
Life-support machines are no different in principle from medicines, surgery,
or other treatment.
A policeman has to be able to work at night, at weekends and on holidays.
The industrial power generator, electronics, and appliance manufacturer
Westinghouse Electric Corporation purchased media production company
CBS Inc.
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Mitsubishi Heavy Industries manufactures a large variety of industrial
products and machinery, including ships, steel products, power plants,
transportation systems, printing presses, aircraft, guided missiles, torpedoes,
and air-conditioning and refrigeration systems.
5. To separate adjectives that separately modify the same noun.
For example:
Critics praise the novel's unaffected, unadorned style.
It was conceived of by all those who participated in it as a temporary,
emergency government.
He walked with long, slow, steady, deliberate strides.
Common mistakes
A comma cannot separate subject from predicate. The following sentences are not
possible:
*A man of his great abilities, would always be successful.
*The number of service enterprises in wealthier free-market economies, has
grown rapidly.
*Only occupants of the deep oceans or the darkest recesses of caves, will
escape such rhythmic influences.
*Experience indicates that, these rhythms do not result wholly from our lifestyle.
A comma cannot be used to join grammatically separate sentences. The following
sentences are not possible:
*London is a very cosmopolitan city, there are people from many culture
living there.
*Learning a new language is like learning to swim, it takes a lot of practice.
*Students in Higher Education face many problems, for example, they have
to cope with a new culture.
Try this exercise: Exercise 2
^
The apostrophe
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The apostrophe has two main functions in English, but only one in academic writing. It is
used mainly to show possession or relationship. It is also used in informal writing to show
contraction or letters left out.
Possession or relationship
The apostrophe precedes the 's' in singular words and plurals that do not end in 's'. It
follows the 's' in plurals that end in 's'. The apostrophe is not used with the possessive
pronouns 'hers', 'yours', 'theirs' and 'its'.
For example:
The province’s 75 school districts are administered by locally elected boards.
Modern estimates of England’s total population vary between 1 and 3 million.
Two years earlier, The Economist had described gambling, as Britain's
second biggest industry.
The annual per capita consumption of sugar, between the Queen's accession
and 1860, rose to 54 lb. in 1870-99 and 85 lb. in 1900-10.
Newly married, neatly permed and wearing the very latest in expensive
Western wedding garb, they head for the groom's sleek sports car under a hail
of rice.
By then Leonardo's expertise with paint brush and palette, pen and pencil was
already well advanced.
In contrast to the all-inclusiveness of other countries' socialised medical
services, 40m Americans have no coverage at all.
The intention of this new alliance is to make the fight against the
administration's policy on cryptography a populist issue and to derail
potentially threatening legislation.
Hemp's environmental credentials are indisputable.
The third and main reason is the process of extracting fibre from the plant's
stem.
The weather's unpredictability makes this risky - farmers can easily lose their
whole crop.
Common mistakes
An apostrophe cannot be used to make plurals. The following are not possible:
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Try this exercise: Exercise 3
^
Quotation marks
In academic writing, quotation marks are used to show that you are quoting directly from
another author's work. The quotation marks should enclose the actual words of the
author and all bibliographical information must be given.
For example:
Hillocks (1986) similarly reviews dozens of research findings. He writes, "
The available research suggests that teaching by written comment on
compositions is generally ineffective" (p. 167).
For example, McCawley stated in 1968, " ... a full account of English syntax
requires a fairly full account of semantics to just as great an extent as the
converse is true" (p. 161).
Hatch (1978, p. 104) wonders whether a more accurate portrayal might be
that the learner " learns how to do conversation, how to interact verbally and
out of this interaction syntactic structures are developed" .
Note the punctuation before the quotation marks:
When a reporting verb is used to introduce the quotation, a comma is used.
He stated, " The ‘placebo effect,’ ... disappeared when behaviours were
studied in this manner" (Smith, 1982, p. 276), but he did not clarify which
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behaviours were studied.
When the quotation is integrated into the structure of your sentence, no punctuation is
used.
Richterich and Chancerel (1980, p. 5) maintain that " assessment should be an
integral part of the learning material" .
When the quotation is independent of the structure of the main sentence, a colon is
used.
Miele (1993, p. 276) found the following: " The placebo effect ... disappeared
when behaviors were studied in this manner" .
^
Colon
Colons are used to add extra information after a clause. This can be divided into three
main categories.
Lists
A colon can introduce a list.
We need three kinds of support: economic, moral and political.
The Labour government found itself under pressure from three directions:
from the left wing, from the TUC, and from Sir Oswald Mosley and his
supporters.
Explanations
A colon can be used before an explanation.
We decided not to go on holiday: we had too little money.
It was conceived of by all those who participated in it as a temporary,
emergency government, formed for a single limited purpose: to balance the
budget through drastic economies and increases in taxation.
It was something very rarely seen in Britain, or in other democracies: an
emergency government.
Quotations
A colon is used before a quotation when the quotation is independent of the structure of
the main sentence.
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Miele (1993, p. 276) found the following: " The placebo effect ... disappeared
when behaviors were studied in this manner."
Note
Do not use a colon directly after a verb or a preposition that introduces the list,
explanation or quotation.
^
Semi-Colon
Semi-Colons have two main uses in academic writing.
To separate closely-related sentences
A semi-colon can be used to separate two sentences which could be written as
independent sentences but are very closely related in meaning.
A thorough and detailed biography of Arthur Henderson is also badly needed;
the recent short studies by F. M. Leventhal and Chris Wrigley add little in so
far as the events of 1931 are concerned.
Clearly, as the concentration of P rises, so will the proportion of enzyme
molecules to which P is bound; hence the rate of conversion of S to A, and
thence to P, will fall.
In both cases a full stop would be acceptable. A comma would not.
Complicated Lists
A semi-colon can also be used to separate items in lists, especially if the items are long
and complicated and already contain commas.
Labour was the largest party with 288 MPs; the Conservatives, who had
gained more votes than Labour in the 1929 general election, were,
nevertheless, only the second largest party with, by 1931, 262 MPs; and the
Liberals had fifty-nine MPs.
Latin literature continued to be copied by Christian aristocrats; classical
learning survived in the teaching available, now in episcopal households
rather than public schools; Roman art continued to adorn the walls of
churches and the sides of sarcophagi.
^
Capital letters
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Capital letters have two main uses in English: they are used at the beginning of
sentences and for proper names.
At the beginning of a sentence
If football was a business, it was a very peculiar one. Clubs did not compete
with one another to attract larger crowds by reducing their prices. Nor did
they make any serious efforts to derive income from a huge fixed asset, which
was used for only a few hours a week.
Proper names
Personal names: John, Ms Smith, Dr Brown, Mr Gates, Elizabeth,
Titles: Mr, Ms, Dr, Colonel, Professor, President, Prime Minister, Judge
Geographical names: Argentinian, Europe, China, Mount Everest, Lake
Michigan Skye, Borneo, London, Bangkok, the River Thames, the Pacific
Ocean, the Panama Canal, Baker Street, Cambridge Road, Raffles Hotel, St
George's Hall
Company/Organisation names: Shell, Woolworths, Microsoft, Boots, World
Trade Organisation, World Health Organisation, Federal Trade Commission,
British Broadcasting Corporation
University/School names: Oxford University, University of Hertfordshire,
Royal College of Music
Religions: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam
Days, months, festivals - but not seasons: Monday, July, Christmas, summer,
Magazines: Newsweek, Vogue, The Times, New Scientist
Languages: English, Hindi
Nationalities: English, French, Spanish, Japanese, American
Try these exercises: Exercises 4 & 5
Now do this exercise as a summary: Exercise 6
^
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Proof-reading: Correct word or form of word.
Introduction
Many mistakes are simply avoided by proof-reading.
Correct word
In English many words are similar and easily confused. For example, summary &
summery, cereal & serial, write & right. Make sure you have the correct word.
Try this exercise
Correct word form
It is also very easy to choose the incorrect form of a word. For example, should it be
inform or information, correct or correctly.
Try this exercise.
^
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Exercises
Proof-reading
Verbs
Present
Tense 1
Present
Tense 2
Present
Tense 3
Past
Tense 1
Past
Tense 2
Prepositions
Business
Word
order
Law
Prepositional Law
Verbs aVerbs
b
Phrasal
Law
Verbs
Verbs cd
Object +
Prepositional
Law
Verbs
Verbs e-f
General
Law
Prepositions Verbs g-i
Nouns
Adjective /
Correct
Adverb
Articles Spelling Punctuation
Word
Countable / Exercise 1
uncountable
Exercise 2
Plurals
Exercise 3
Order of
modifiers
Passives
Law
Mixed
Law
Prepositions
1
Law
Prepositions
2
Law
Verbs l-o
Law
Verbs pq
Law
Verbs r-s
Law
Verbs tw
Business
Business
Verbs ab
Business
174
184
Articles
1
Articles
2
Spelling
1
Spelling
2
Punctuation
Word
Word
form 1
Word
form 2
Verbs cd
Business
Verbs e-f
Business
Verbs g-i
Business
Verbs l-o
Business
Verbs pq
Business
Verbs r-s
Business
Verbs t-w
^
175
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EAP Accuracy: Test
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Proof-reading: Test
1. Verbs
Proof-read the following text, checking the verbs. Show your answers to someone. If you are in one of my classes, email the corrections to me.
What Schools Do
Schools is supposed to educate. This am their ideology, their public purpose. They has gone unchallenged, until
recently, partly because education is itself a term which mean such different things to different people. Different
schools does different things, of course, but increasingly, schools in all nations, of all kinds, at all levels, combines
four distinct social functions: custodial care, social-role selection, indoctrination, and education as usually defined
in terms of the development of skills and knowledge. It is the combination of these functions which make
schooling so expensive. It is conflict among these functions which makes schools educationally inefficient. It is
also the combination of these functions which tend to make school a total institution, which has made it an
international institution, and which makes it such an effective instrument of social control.
2. Prepositions
Proof-read the following text, checking the prepositions. Show your answers to someone. If you are in one of my
classes, e-mail the corrections to me.
On the end of the eighteenth century, the skin of an altogether astounding animal arrived to London. It had come
from the newly established colony in Australia. The creature in which it had belonged was about the size of a
rabbit, with fur as thick and as fine as an otter’s. Its feet were webbed and clawed; its rear vent was a single one
combining both excretory and reproductive functions, a cloaca, like that of a reptile; and most outlandish at all, it
had a large flat beak like a duck. It was so bizarre that some people in London dismissed it as another of those
faked monsters that were confected in the Far East to bits and pieces of dissimilar creatures and then sold to
gullible travellers as mermaids, sea dragons and other wonders. But careful examination of the skin showed no sign
in fakery. The strange bill which seemed to fit so awkwardly on to the furry head, with a flap like a cuff at the
junction, did truly belong. The animal, however improbable it might seem, was a real one.
Life on earth by David Attenborough.
3. Word order
Proof-read the following text, checking the word order. Show your answers to someone. If you are in one of my
classes, e-mail the corrections to me.
While many people express an interest in language, they know about it less than about almost any other aspects of
their lives. We use language almost every of the waking day moment for every imaginable purpose. We declare
war and peace negotiate through language; we propose marriage and vow love undying through language; we use
in shops it for buying, in schools for teaching, in churches for praying; we listen to soap operas, sonnets and songs
pop; we sue other each in court about what have we said; we think about the meaning of life and we plan what will
we have for supper; we write countless books, newspapers, diaries, prescriptions, e-mails and memos. Almost
every human activity involves directly or indirectly language.
Inside language by Vivian Cook
4. Nouns
Proof-read the following sentences, checking the plural nouns. Show your answers to someone. If you are in one of
my classes, e-mail the corrections to me.
z
z
z
z
Those commentator who blame Labour for not pursuing an alternative set of more socially just proposal ought
rather to blame the electorate for not giving Labour sufficient support to form a majority government in 1929.
It is impossible here to enter into the detail of this controversy.
It is because the State has recognised this fact that the law has insisted that these group and society must get
the authority of the State.
Some system of law recognise as legal persons, not only corporations, but institution, such as hospital or place
of education.
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z
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Marked also in this copy are the passage about William Cowper's gift of poetry.
5. Nouns
Proof-read the following sentences, checking the uncountable nouns. Show your answers to someone. If you are in
one of my classes, e-mail the corrections to me.
Computerised voice synthesisers often have tendency to sound rather, well, robotic. For years, researchers have
worked to improve such systems' intonation, so that it matches the "prosody" rules that people use to add the
grammatical meaning to strings of words - for example, the way that the pitch of voice falls at the end of sentence,
or rises before a question-mark. But even the most well-spoken computers tend to sound bored, and their endless
droning can irritate human listeners. So instead of concentrating on improving the prosody of a neutral-sounding
voice, D'Arcy Haskins Truluck, a research student at the University of Florida, has set out to develop a way to
improve the ability of computerised voices to express the emotion.
6. Adjectives/adverbs
Proof-read the following text, checking the adjectives and adverbs. Show your answers to someone. If you are in one
of my classes, e-mail the corrections to me.
This book is about the class structure of contemporary Western capitalism. We focus on one particularly society,
Britain. All the detailed empirical material on which we draw relates to Britain, although from time to time we
refer brief to the situation in other capitalist countries. When we do so, it is in order to point to the essentially
similarity of condition between them and Britain, or to bring out certainly distinctive features of the British
example. But it is central to our approach that we take Britain as an example of a modern capitalist society. This is,
in other words, not a book primary about the ‘peculiarities of the English’. It would have been possible to write a
book - or several books - of that kind, quite different from this. It would not in our view, however, have made good
sense to do so. For we believe, first, that the conditions of class and power which Britain shares with other
capitalist countries, by virtue of the fact that they are capitalist, are overwhelming more significant than the
differences among them. Second, we think that it is possible to discuss such differences sensible only against the
background of a detailed analysis of the dominant common features of capitalism. As we cannot carry out both
kinds of analysis adequate at the same time, our main concern is with just those dominant features, illustrated by
the British example.
Class in a capitalist society by John Westergaard & Henrietta Resler
7. Articles
Proof-read the following text, checking the articles. Show your answers to someone. If you are in one of my classes,
e-mail the corrections to me.
Human beings inevitably acquire values and attitudes that are product of their experience. Peasants and other
subordinate groups, such as a urban and rural poor, acquire values and attitudes that explain, rationalize, and ward
off the demeaning and harmful aspects of their subordinate position. Anthropologists have carried out many studies
aimed at determining an extent to which values and attitudes of subordinate classes, castes, and ethnic groups trap
the members of such groups into subordinate and exploited statuses. This chapter attempts to assess the importance
of values and attitudes in the perpetuation of such statuses.
8. Spelling
Proof-read the following text, checking the spelling. Show your answers to someone. If you are in one of my classes,
e-mail the corrections to me.
Sum of the most exiting and relevant research to have been reported onn learning in highar education in the past 20
years not only offers an explanasion of wot may he hapening to Antony and Melissa, but it also ofers university
teachers a way of addressing quality of learning issues. It suggests that for al students there are better and worse
wayz to lern. It also sugests to university teachers thet by altering the learning context it may he posible to improve
learning by encuraging that aproach.
Understanding learning and teaching by Michael Prosser & Keith Trigwell
9. Correct words
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Proof-read the following text, checking whether all the words are correct. Show your answers to someone. If you are
in one of my classes, e-mail the corrections to me.
z
z
z
z
z
Buyers in bad faith were deprived of all remedy accept for return of the price, and no damages could be
sought.
Even though it was mid-October, the weather was still summary.
Thomas Hobbes was born near Malmesbury in 1588, the sun of the local vicar and his wife.
The Finlay Report disgust Pan American's route structure and rapid wartime expansion under the guise of
military service.
An increased blood supply brings the extra oxygen needed for glucose breakdown and removes the waist
materials.
10. Punctuation
Proof-read the following text, checking the punctuation. Show your answers to someone. If you are in one of my
classes, e-mail the corrections to me.
what makes human language unique how did language begin this book is a wide-ranging and stimulating
introduction to language which students and general readers alike will read for enjoyment as well as instruction it
explores the most intriguing questions about the nature of human language drawing on basic insights that have
been developed by linguistics this century the author introduces the reader to the study of language through
chapters on grammar sounds writing and words emphasising these as systems within the overall system of
language later chapters look at the stages through which children learn language and the theories that explain their
rapid progress at what can go wrong with speech in childhood and maturity and at how speakers of a language
show their different origins an class
Inside language by Vivian Cook
11. Word form
Proof-read the following text, checking the word froms. Show your answers to someone. If you are in one of my
classes, e-mail the corrections to me.
One of the three represent of a staged automobile collide was shown to 180 students from introduction psychology
classes. We then questioned the students about details of the accidental, using either marked or unmarked
modifiers. Half the students were questioned immediate after viewing the stimulate material and half after a 20-min
delay. The results indicated that estimates of the magnitude of a number of aspects of the collide were significant
greater when unmarked modifiers were used in phrasing the relevant questions. Students who were questioned
after the 20-min delay gave significant greater estimates of monetary damage than the students who answered
immediate after viewing the represent. The nature of the stimulus material had consistent but significant effects.
^
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