TEC 437
Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Identified below are a few of the well known quality leaders and what they
contributed to both the interpersonal process and technical aspects of quality
management. These people are considered to be the quality guru’s.
Guru
Contribution
Philip B. Crosby
Senior manager involvement
4 absolutes of quality management
Quality cost measurements
W. Edwards Deming
Plan-do-study-act (wide American usage)
Top management involvement
Concentration on system improvement
Constancy of purpose
Armand V. Feigenbaum
Total quality control/management
Top management involvement
Kaoru Ishikawa
4M (5M) or cause-and-effect diagram
Companywide quality control
Next operation as customer
Joseph M. Juran
Top management involvement
Quality Trilogy (project improvement)
Quality cost measurement
Pareto Analysis
Walter A. Shewhart
Assignable cause vs. chance cause
Control charts
Plan-do-check-act (in product design)
Use of statistics for improvement
Genichi Taguchi
Loss function concepts
Signal to noise ratio
Experimental design methods
Concept of design robustness
On the following pages are brief biographies of the quality gurus, including
their most notable quality management contributions. These quality
luminaries are presented alphabetically.
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Philip B. Crosby (1928 - 2001)
Philip B. Crosby was the corporate vice president of ITT for 14 years. In
1979, he founded Philip Crosby Associates, Inc. in Winter Park, Florida. Mr.
Crosby consulted, spoke, and wrote about strategic quality issues
throughout his professional life.
Awards:
Quality
Fellow, ASQ and Past President of the American Society for
Books: Some of Mr. Crosby's more popular books include:
Quality Is Free: The Art of Making Quality Certain (1979)
The Art of Getting Your Own Sweet Way (1981)
Quality Without Tears: The Art of Hassle-free Management (1984)
The Eternally Successful Organization: The Art of Corporate Wellness (1988)
Leading, the Art of Becoming an Executive (1990)
Completeness: Quality for the 21st Century (1992)
Running Things: The Art of Making Things Happen (1992)
Quality and Me: Lessons from an Evolving Life (1999)
Statement on Quality: Quality is conformance to requirements.
Philip Crosby started his career as a junior technician testing fire control
systems for 8-47s. He eventually moved on to ITT and became one of the
first corporate VPs of quality in the country. He attributed his management
training to Harold Geneen and to the monthly general management
meetings. It was Philip Crosby's deep understanding of the concerns of
management that made him akin to top management. The other quality
deep thinkers could be viewed as academicians, but Crosby was considered
a businessman. This explained the numbers of top management that flocked
to his quality college.
Crosby believed that quality was a significant part of the company and senior
managers must take charge of it. He believed the quality professionals must
become more knowledgeable and communicative about the business. Crosby
stated that corporate management must make the cost of quality a part of
the financial system of their company.
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Philip B. Crosby (Continued)
Philip Crosby preached four absolutes of quality management:
1. Quality means conformance to requirements. The requirements are
what the customer says they are. There is a need to emphasize a
"do it right the first time" attitude.
2. Quality comes from prevention. Opportunities are available to
correct problems in the system.
3. The quality performance standard is zero defects. You must insist
on zero defects. Otherwise, it is acceptable to send out
nonconforming parts and goods. If there is a nonconformance,
then action must be taken to eliminate and prevent it.
4. Quality measurement is the price of nonconformance. A
measurement of quality is needed to get management's attention,
prioritize problems, correct problems, and to measure progress.
The four absolutes of quality management are basic requirements for
understanding the purpose of a quality system. Phillip Crosby also developed
a 14 step approach to quality improvement:
1.
Management commitment
2.
Quality improvement teams 3. Measurement
4.
Cost of quality
5.
Quality awareness
6.
Corrective action
7.
Zero defects planning
8.
Employee education
9.
Zero defects day
10.
Goal setting
11.
Error cause removal
12.
Recognition
13.
Quality councils
14.
Do it all over again
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. W. Edwards Deming (1900 -1993)
Education:
B.S., University of Wyoming; M.S., University of Colorado;
Ph.D., Physics, Yale.
Awards:
Shewhart Medal, ASQ, 1955
Second Order Medal of the Sacred Treasure, First American,
1960 Honorary Member, ASQ, 1970,
and numerous others.
Books:
Over 200 papers, articles, and books have been published.
Quality, Productivity, and Competitive Position (1982)
Out of the Crisis (1986)
Statement on quality: He was the founder of the third wave of the industrial
revolution.
W. Edwards Deming was the one individual who stood for quality and for
what it means. He is a national folk hero in Japan and was perhaps the
leading speaker for the quality revolution in the world. He did summer work
at the Hawthorne plant while working on his Ph.D. There he became
acquainted with W. Shewhart and studied Shewhart's statistical methods.
The World War II effort enabled Deming to conduct classes in statistical
methods to thousands of American engineers, foremen, and workers. The
statistical methods were later credited to be a major factor in the war effort.
But as he would state it, after the war, all traces of statistical methods were
gone in a puff of smoke.
There were several visits to Japan between 1946 and 1948, for the purpose
of census taking. He developed a fondness for the Japanese people during
that time. JUSE (Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers) invited Deming
back in 1950 for executive courses in statistical methods. He refused
royalties on his seminar materials and insisted that the proceeds be used to
help the Japanese people. JUSE named their ultimate quality prize after him.
Deming would return to Japan on many other occasions to teach and
consult. He was well known in Japan, but not so in America. Only when NBC
published its white paper, "If Japan can, why can't we?" did America
discover him. An overnight success at age 80, W.E. Deming died at the age
of 93, but during those last 13 years, he gave American industry a dose of
strong medicine in quality. His message to America is listed in his famous 14
points and 7 deadly diseases.
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. W. Edwards Deming (Continued)
The Fourteen Obligations of Top Management:
1. Create constancy of purpose for improvement of products and service
2. Adopt a new philosophy; we are in a new economic age
3. Cease dependence upon inspection as a way to achieve quality
4. End the practice of awarding business based on price tag
5. Constantly improve the process of planning, production, and service this
system includes people
6. Institute training on-the-job
7. Institute improved supervision (leadership)
8. Drive out fear
9. Break down barriers between departments
10.
Eliminate slogans/targets asking for increased productivity without
providing methods
11.
Eliminate numerical quotas
12.
Remove barriers that stand between workers and their pride of
workmanship; the same for all salaried people
13.
Institute programs for education and retraining
14.
Put a total emphasis in the company to accomplish the
transformation
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. W. Edwards Deming (Continued)
Deming stated that management is not stupid (Latzko, 1995). They do their
best, but they lack a theory of profound knowledge to guide their decisions.
Often, they tamper with the process and make matters worse. Western
management is geared to short-term thinking and generates many quick fix
ideas which fall short of solving the true problems. Some of the "default'
techniques utilized by many firms include:
1. Automation
2. Zero defects
3. Just in time (JIT)
4. Motivation techniques
5. Standards
6. Management by objectives
7. Performance appraisals
8. Cost reduction programs
Dr. Deming's profound knowledge includes the following elements:
1. Appreciation for a system
2. Theory of variation
3. Theory of knowledge
4. Understanding psychology
The system of profound knowledge is a framework for applying
management's best efforts to the right tasks. It applies statistical principles
to processes and systems. The theory of knowledge is needed for prediction.
A knowledge of psychology is needed to deal with people.
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. W. Edwards Deming (Continued)
Seven Deadly Diseases That Management Must Cure:
1. Lack of constancy of purpose to plan a marketable product and service
to keep the company in business and provide jobs
2. Emphasis on short-term profits
3. Personal evaluation appraisal, by whatever name, for people in
management, the effects of which are devastating
4. Mobility of management; job hopping
5. Use of visible figures for management, with little or no consideration of
figures that are unknown or unknowable
6. Excessive medical costs
7. Excessive costs of warranty, fueled by lawyers that work on
contingency fees
Among other educational techniques, Deming promoted the parable of the
red beads, the PDSA cycle, and the concept of 94% system variation
(management controllable) versus 6% special variation (some of which may
be operator controllable).
Deming's philosophy is one which focuses on individuals as fellow members
of a system, and treats people as partners, as customers, as neighbors, and
as friends. While the Deming philosophy benefits the individuals in a firm,
the company itself should be able to reap benefits from this new philosophy.
Among the economic benefits to be gained are:
1. Reduction of the economic burden
2. Expansion of markets
3. Survival of organizations that serve customers
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. W. Edwards Deming (Continued)
Deming's chain reaction is summarized by Delavigne (1994) as the following
series of events:
1. The quality and productivity rise
2. Costs decreases
3. The time required for development and production is reduced
4. Management begins to know their cost, "they have a system"
5. Increased division of labor and specialization occurs
6. The near-term future is more predictable
7. The standard of living rises
8. The system has a future and can provide "jobs and more jobs"
As the above sequence is occurring, the marketplace is responding to the
firm:
1. The customer obtains reduced prices
2. There is increased cooperation
3. New products and services are provided to the
customers.
4. There are higher levels of customer satisfaction
5. There is a reduction of competition for a share of the
market
Thus, a "chain reaction" of good things can occur through the Deming
philosophy.
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. Armand V. Feigenbaum (1920 - )
Currently president of General Systems Company, Pittsfield, MA., Dr.
Feigenbaum was associated with General Electric for 26 years in
engineering.
Education:
B.S., Union College;
M.S. & Ph.D., MIT
Awards:
Honorary Member, ASQ, 1986
E. Jack Lancaster Award, ASQ, 1981
Edwards Medal, ASQ, 1965
Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science Life Member,
IEEE and ASME
2-time president of ASQ 1961/63
Founding chairman, International Academy for Quality
Books:
Quality Control: Principles, Practice (1951)
Total Quality Control- Engineering and Management (1961) Management
Programming
The Organization Practice
Total Quality Control, 3rd ed. (1983)
Total Quality Control, 40th Anniversary Edition (1991)
Statement on Total Quality Control:
An effective system for integrating the quality development, quality
maintenance, and quality improvements of the various groups in an
organization so as to enable production and service at the most economical
levels allowing for full customer satisfaction.
Feigenbaum is generally given credit for establishing the concept of "total
quality control" in the late 1940s at General Electric. His TQC statement was
first published in 1961, but, at that time, the concept was so new, that no
one listened.
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. Armand V. Feigenbaum (Continued)
A.V. Feigenbaum eventually formed his own company in 1968, (General
Systems Co., Inc.) to provide services in quality management and strategic
planning to worldwide clients. Feigenbaum states that the American industry
must strive to become as strong as it can be in its own marketplace. This
has become valuable as global competitiveness has spread into the U.S.
Proper design, production, selling, and servicing will provide the potential for
supremacy in the marketplace.
The TQC philosophy maintains that all areas of the company must be involved in the
quality effort. The quality effort has generally only affected the shop floor people, but
must extend to all sections of the company. Products must not only be made quicker
and faster, but also sold faster. Feigenbaum noted that the quality professional has an
opportunity to become more than a functional specialist. The opportunity is there to
become a true businessman by providing valuable information and direction.
The success of TQC includes these principles:
1. TQC is a companywide process, all functions are involved
2. Quality is what the customer says it is
3. Quality and production costs are in partnership
4. Higher quality will equate with lower costs
5. Both individual and team zeal are required
6. Quality is a way of managing, using continuous leadership
7. Quality and innovation can work together in product development
8. All of management must be involved in quality, not just the
specialist. Continuous improvement is required
9. Quality is the least capital intensive route to productivity
10. Both customers and suppliers must be considered
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa (1915 -1989)
Education: B.S. in Chemistry & Ph.D. Engineering - University of Tokyo
Awards:
Deming Prize (1952)
Nihon Keizai Press Prize
Industrial Standardization Prize
Grant Award (ASQ)
Shewhart Medal (ASQ), first Japanese to be awarded
Honorary Member, ASQ (1986)
Ishikawa Award (ASQ) (established, 1993)...recognizes outstanding
contribution to the improvement of the human aspects of quality
Books:
Authored the first Japanese book to define the word "TQC" in 1981 Guide to
Quality Control (1982)24
What is Total Quality Control? The Japanese Way (1985)25
Statement on Total Quality Control:
To practice quality control is to develop, design, produce, and service a
quality product that is most economical, most useful, and always satisfactory
to the consumer.
Kaoru Ishikawa was involved with the quality movement in its earliest
beginnings and remained so until his death in 1989. His father, Ichiro
Ishikawa, president of the Federation of Economic Organizations and of
JUSE, invited Deming to speak before top Japanese executives in 1950.
Ishikawa's training tapes, produced in 1981, contain many of the statements
of quality that are in vogue today. Subjects such as "total quality” control,
next operation as customer, training of workers, empowerment, customer
satisfaction, elimination of sectionalism (it's not our job), and humanistic
management of workers, are examples. It is amazing to hear such
statements of quality on record from more than two decades ago.
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa (Continued)
Ishikawa stated that total quality control had been practiced in Japan since
1958. The time for such a philosophy to take hold in a company can range
from 2-5 years. That time will depend on the commitment of top
management. To reduce confusion between Japanese style total quality
control and western style total quality control, he called the Japanese
method the companywide quality control (CWQC). There are 6 main
characteristics that make CWQC different:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
More education and training in quality control
Quality circles are really only 20% of the activities for CWQC
Participation by all members of the company
Having QC audits
Using the seven tools and advanced statistical methods
Nationwide quality control promotion activities
CWQC involves the participation of workers from top to bottom of the
organization and from the start to the finish of the product life cycle. CWQC
requires a management philosophy that has respect for humanity. There
must be acknowledgment that the worker can contribute to the success of
the company through suggestions, creativity, and worthwhile ideas.
One of the first concepts that western management took back to their own
shores was the quality circle. The quality circle concept represents the
"bottom up" approach. In 1988, there were one million quality circles with
10 million people involved in Japan. Quality circles were originally study
groups that workers formed together in their department to study the
quality concepts that were published in "Quality Control for Foremen"
(Ishikawa was the editor). Quality circles involve members from within the
department. The circle solves problems on a continuous basis. Circle
membership changes dependent upon the task or project under
consideration.
Ishikawa also wrote that he originated the concept "next operation as
customer" in 1950 when he was working with a steel mill. Operators
concerned about their own defects were considered spies whenever they
traveled to the next department to view their original work. Departments
were defensive when outsiders made tours, thus, a concept of "the next
operation as customer" was developed to remove those
fears. The separation of departments was referred to as sectionalism.
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. Joseph M. Juran (1904 - 2008)
Founder and Chairman Emeritus of The Juran Institute.
Education:
B.S. University of Minnesota;
J.D., Loyola University; and numerous honorary doctorates of science,
engineering, and law.
Awards:
Edwards Medal, ASQ
Brumbaugh Awards, ASQ
Grant Awards, ASQ
Honorary Member, ASQ
Second Order Medal of the Sacred Treasure, 1981
Plus 30 other medals, fellowships, and honorary memberships
Books: 15 books, 40 videotapes
Juran on Planning for Quality (1988)
Juran on Leadership for Quality (1989)
Juran on Quality by Design (1992)
Quality Planning & Analysis (1993)
Juran's Control Handbook, 5th ed. (1999)
Statement on quality:
Adopt a revolutionary rate of improvement in quality, making quality
improvements by the thousands, year after year. Dr. Juran also defined
quality as fitness for use.
J.M. Juran started in quality after his graduation from engineering school
with an inspection position at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant in Chicago
in 1924. (Walter Shewhart and W.E. Deming were also at that plant.) He left
Western Electric to begin a career in research, lecturing, consulting, and
writing that has lasted over 50 years. An association with the American
Management Association has enabled Juran to teach a course "Managing for
Quality" for 30 years to about 100,000 people in over 40 countries.
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. Joseph M. Juran (Continued)
The publication of his book...Quality Control Handbook, and his work in
quality management, led to an invitation from JUSE in 1954. Juran's first
lectures in Japan were to the 140 largest company CEOs, and later to 150
senior managers. The right audience was there at the start. Juran
commented that no one was more surprised than he to see CEOs at the
seminars. His visit thus marked Japan's use of QC as a management, rather
than a specialist, technique.
J.M. Juran has a prime basic belief that quality in America is improving, but
it must be improved at a revolutionary rate. Quality improvements need to
be made by the thousands, year after year. Only then does a company
become a quality leader.
Juran's basics for success can be described as follows:
Top management must commit the time and resources for success.
CEOs must serve on the quality council (steering committee).
Specific quality improvement goals must be in the business plan and
include:
1. The means to measure quality results against goals
2. A review of results against goals
3. A reward for superior quality performance
The responsibility for improvements must be assigned to individuals.
People must be trained for quality management and improvement.
The workforce must be empowered to participate in the improvement
process.
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. Joseph M. Juran (Continued)
The Juran Trilogy:
Juran has felt that managing for quality requires the same attention that
other functions obtain. Thus, he developed the Juran trilogy or quality trilogy
which involves:
1. Quality planning
2. Quality control
3. Quality improvement
Juran sees these items as the keys to success. Top management can follow
this sequence just as they would use one for financial budgeting, cost
control, and profit improvement.
For any project, quality planning is used to create the process that will
enable one to meet the desired goals. The concept of quality control is used
to monitor and adjust the process. Chronic losses are normal in a controlled
state, while the sporadic spike will cause investigations. Eventually, only
quality improvement activities reduce the chronic losses and move the
process to a better and improved state of control and that's the "last word."
Contrast of Big Q and Little Q:
Dr. Juran developed a mechanism for contrasting quality in the smaller
tactical sense (little Q) with quality in the larger strategic sense (big Q). It
provides an individual with an instant recognition of what is being defined.
For instance:
Having a team solve a specific process problem is a little Q item
Having teams throughout the company solve problems is a big Q item
This methodology is often associated with quality cost analysis. The
strategic, big Q view is most essential for organizational leadership.
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. Walter A. Shewhart (1891 -1967)
Education:
B.S. and M.S., University of Illinois; Ph.D. in Physics, University of California
Awards:
Holley Medal, ASME
Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Statistical Society
First Honorary Member of ASQ
Honorary Professor of Statistical Quality Control, Rutgers University
The Shewhart Medal is named in his honor
Books:
Published a series of articles in Bell System Technical Journal Economic
Control of Quality of Manufactured Product (1931)
Statistical Method from the Viewpoint of Quality Control (1939)
Quote:
"Both pure and applied sciences have gradually pushed further and further
the requirements for accuracy and precision. However, applied science,
particularly in the mass production of interchangeable parts, is even more
exacting than pure science in certain matters of accuracy and precision."
Shewhart worked for the Western Electric Company, a manufacturer of
telephone hardware for Bell Telephone, from 1918 until 1924. Bell
Telephone's engineers had a need to reduce the frequency of failures and
repairs. In 1924, Shewhart framed the problem in terms of assignable and
chance cause variation and introduced the control chart as a tool for
distinguishing between the two. Bringing a production process into a state of
statistical control, where the only variation is chance cause, is necessary to
manage a process economically.
Shewhart's charts were adopted by the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) in 1933. The charts were used to improve production
during World War II in the form of American War Standards Z1.1, Z1.2, and
Z1.3. W. Edwards Deming championed Shewhart's methods, working as a
consultant to Japanese industries from 1950 to 1990.
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. Walter A. Shewhart (Continued)
Walter Shewhart's statistical process control charts have become a quality legacy
that continues today. Control charts are widely used to monitor processes and to
determine when a process changes. Process changes are only made when points
on the control chart are outside acceptable ranges.
Shewhart's charts provide a way to define the limits of random variation. Dr.
Deming stated that Shewhart's genius was in recognizing when to act, and when
to leave a process alone. (Capitol Hill, 2001)
The Shewhart Cycle:
The Shewhart cycle (PDCA) and the Deming cycle (PDSA) are very helpful
procedures for improvement. This problem solving methodology can be used with
or without a special cause being indicated by use of any statistical tool.
Both PDCA and PDSA are discussed in Section VIII of this Primer. What Shewhart
actually contributed to this technique was a four stage product design cycle (with
iterations) which Deming presented to the Japanese in 1951.
This design cycle was adapted as a general problem solving technique by the
Japanese. Deming in turn, modified the Japanese approach to a continual
improvement spiral called PDSA. Deming gave credit for the technique to
Shewhart, although there were one or more intermediate Japanese contributors.
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. Genichi Taguchi ( 1924 - )
Dr. Taguchi is currently a consultant for Ohken Associates (Tokyo) and was the
past director of the American Supplier Institute, Inc. He is called the ''father of
quality engineering. "
Awards:
Deming Prize, 1960
Rockwell Award, 1986
MITI Purple Ribbon Award,
1989 Indigo Award,
Japan, 1989
ASME Medal, 1992
Books:
System of Experimental Design, 2 volumes Introduction to Quality Engineering
(1986)
Off-line Quality Control (1979)
Statement on Quality:
Quality is related to the financial loss to society caused by a product during its life
Cycle.
Quality engineering techniques were developed by Genichi Taguchi in the 1950s.
The techniques enabled engineers to develop products and processes in a fraction
of the time as required by conventional engineering practices. He made his first
visit to the U.S. in the summer of 1980 to assist American industry in the pursuit
of quality. In 1983, Ford and Xerox began to promote Taguchi's system, both
internally and among suppliers. Taguchi's system was appealing because it was a
complete system that started with ,the product concept and continued into product
design and then into manufacturing operations. It is a system to optimize the
design of products and processes in a cost-effective manner.
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Quality Philosophies and Approaches
Dr. Genichi Taguchi (Continued)
Taguchi's plan takes a different view of product quality:
1. The evaluation of quality - Use the loss function and signal-to-noise ratio as
ways to evaluate the cost of not meeting the target value. The traditional
view is that a product is either within specification limits or not. Taguchi
feels the quality loss increases parabolically as the product strays from a
single target value.
2. Improvement of quality and cost factors - Use statistical methods for
system design, parameter design, and tolerance design of the product. The
methods could include quality function deployment, signal to noise
characteristics, and design of experiments (using orthogonal arrays).
3. Monitoring and maintaining quality - Reduce the variability of the production
line. Insist on consistency from the floor. Take measurements of quality
characteristics from the floor and use the feedback.
Taguchi methods and other design of experiment techniques have been described
as tools that tell us how to make something happen, whereas most statistical
methods tell us what has happened. Taguchi methods are concepts that many
engineers can take out of a book and use.
The concept of robust products is now being explored in the design phase to
reduce quality losses. Robustness derives from consistency. Robust products and
processes demonstrate more insensitivity to those variables that are either difficult
to control or non-controllable. Building parts to target (nominal) is the key to
success. One should work relentlessly to achieve designs that can be produced
consistently and demand consistency from the factory.
It has been stated that about 50% of the practicing engineers in Japan are
competent in Taguchi methods. Dr. Taguchi has presented America with quality
engineering techniques that can work to produce better products and reduce costs.
It is more technical in nature and made for the technical specialists. Top
management needs only to provide the training to learn the concepts and allow its
use throughout the corporation for it to be effective. The Taguchi approach does
not call for an internal revolution. His concepts do improve products and
procedures.
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