Inventories
2014 Level I Financial Reporting and Analysis
IFT Notes for the CFA® exam
Inventories
Irfanullah.co
Contents
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 3
2. Cost of Inventories ........................................................................................................................... 3
3. Inventory Valuation Methods .......................................................................................................... 4
4. Measurement of Inventory Value .................................................................................................. 11
5. Presentation Disclosure .................................................................................................................. 12
6. Evaluation of Inventory Management ........................................................................................... 14
Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 15
Next Steps ........................................................................................................................................... 16
This document should be read in conjunction with the corresponding reading in the 2014 Level I
CFA® Program curriculum.
Some of the graphs, charts, tables, examples, and figures are copyright 2013, CFA Institute.
Reproduced and republished with permission from CFA Institute. All rights reserved.
Required disclaimer: CFA Institute does not endorse, promote, or warrant the accuracy or
quality of the products or services offered by Irfanullah Financial Training. CFA Institute,
CFA®, and Chartered Financial Analyst® are trademarks owned by CFA Institute.
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1. Introduction
Inventories are assets held by a company to produce finished goods for sale. Such assets include
raw materials, unfinished goods and finished goods. Inventory is shown as a current asset on the
balance sheet; it can represent a significant part of the total assets for many companies.
Manufacturing and merchandising companies (eg: Nike, Caterpillar) generate sales and profit
through the sale of inventory. An important measure in calculating profits is cost of goods sold
i.e. how much cost the company incurred from procuring raw materials to converting it to a
finished product, and finally selling it.
There is no universal inventory valuation method. IFRS and GAAP allow different identification
methods to measure the cost of inventory such as specific identification, weighted average cost,
first-in, first-out, and last-in, first-out.
2. Cost of Inventories
When a company spends money on inventory most of the costs are capitalized. Capitalizing
means creating an asset on the balance sheet. Specifically the inventory costs that are capitalized
include:

Costs of purchase

Costs of conversion (for converting raw material into finished product)

All other costs necessary to bring inventories to its present location and condition

Fixed production overhead under normal operating capacity
The costs which are expensed in period incurred are:

Abnormal wastage of materials

Storage costs

Administrative overheads

Selling costs

Unused portion of fixed production overhead

Transportation of finished goods
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Worked Example 1:
Kayvee Corporation manufactures high-end tractors. The inventory related costs are shown
below:
Raw materials
$56,000
Direct labor
$40,000
Abnormal wastage
$6,000
Transportation of raw materials
$10,000
Transportation of finished goods to showroom
$1,000
Storage of finished product
$18,000
What value of inventory is recorded?
Solution:
The value of inventory is based on the costs which are capitalized. These costs are: raw
materials, direct labor, and transportation of raw materials: 56,000 + 40,000 + 10,000 = 106,000.
Note that following costs: abnormal wastage, transportation of finished goods and storage of
finished product are expensed in the period incurred.
3. Inventory Valuation Methods
Why do we need inventory valuation methods? Simply put, because of inflation. The cost of raw
materials and the costs incurred to convert the raw materials to finished goods change over time
(increase or decrease). As the inventory costs do not remain constant over this period of time,
different valuation methods are used to allocate inventory costs between the cost of goods sold
on the income statement and inventory on the balance sheet.
What inventory valuation method a company follows is of significant importance as it affects the
costs of inventory, hence the financial statements and profitability of the company.
The four methods for accounting inventory are:

Specific Identification

FIFO (First-In, First Out)
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
Weighted Average Cost

LIFO (Last-In, First Out)
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3.1 Specific Identification
Specific identification is used when:

Items are unique in nature and not interchangeable.

Cost of inventory is high.

Carried on the financial statements at actual cost – i.e. cost of sales and ending inventory
costs reflect actual costs incurred.

Every item in the inventory can be tracked individually.
Examples: Jewelry, expensive watches, highly valued art pieces, used cars
3.2 First-In, First-Out (FIFO)
Under First-In, First-Out:

Oldest goods purchased or manufactured are assumed to be sold first.

Newest goods purchased or manufactured remain in ending inventory.

When prices are increasing or stable, costs assigned to items in inventory is higher than
the cost of items sold.
The following example illustrates how cost of goods sold and inventory are accounted for each
period:
Let’s assume you bought four pencils. The first two pencils were worth $1 each and the next two
pencils were worth $2 each. Before you start selling, your inventory consists of four pencils.
$1
$1
$2
$2
In period 1, you sell two pencils. The cost of pencils sold in period 1 is $2 (two pencils of $1
each). The pencils that were first bought are considered sold. Inventory at the end of period 1 is
$4 and looks like this (2 pencils of $2 each):
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$2
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$2
As you could see, cost of pencils sold in period 1 was $2 (cheaper pencils bought initially)
whereas the cost of pencils in inventory was $4. In period 2, you again sell two pencils. The cost
of pencils sold in period 2 is $4. Inventory at the end of period 2 is 0.
Advantage of using FIFO is that it is less subject to manipulation. It results in higher income
when prices are increasing.
3.3 Weighted Average Cost
Under weighted average cost method each item in inventory is valued using an average cost of
all items in the inventory.
Weighted average cost = Total cost of units available for sale / total units available for
sale
Let’s use the pencils example again to illustrate how inventory is calculated using the WAC
method.
Total cost of pencils available for sales = $6
Total number of pencils available for sale = 4
Weighted average cost per pencil = 6/4 = 1.5
WAC Method
Item
WAC (in $)
Cost of 2 pencils sold in period 1
3
Inventory for 2 pencils at the end of period 1
3
Cost of 2 pencils sold in period 2
3
Inventory at the end of period 2
0
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3.4 Last-In, First-Out
Under Last-In, First-Out method:

Newest goods purchased or manufactured are assumed to be sold first.

Oldest goods purchased or manufactured remain in ending inventory.

Cost of goods sold reflects cost of goods purchased or manufactured recently; value of
inventory reflects cost of older goods purchased.
We will continue with the pencils example to see how inventory is accounted for in LIFO:
Unlike FIFO, at the end of period 1, LIFO inventory consists of the first two pencils:
$1
$1
LIFO Method
Item
LIFO (in $)
Cost of 2 pencils sold in period 1
4
Inventory for 2 pencils at the end of period 1
2
Cost of 2 pencils sold in period 2
2
Inventory at the end of period 2
0
LIFO is not allowed under IFRS; it is allowed only under U.S. GAAP.
Companies use LIFO during inflation to reduce taxes as cost of goods sold (COGS) is high.
3.5 Calculation of cost of sales, gross profit, and ending inventory
Assume each of the pencils in the example above was sold for $5. The table below summarizes
the cost of goods sold, inventory ending value and gross profit under each of the methods:
Inventory Accounting under Various Methods
Item
FIFO (in $)
LIFO (in $)
WAC (in $)
COGS for period 1
2
4
3
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Gross profit for period 1
8
6
7
Inventory at end of period 1
4
2
3
COGS for period 2
4
2
3
Gross profit for period 2
6
8
7
Inventory at end of period 2
0
0
0
Some points to be noted:

The total gross profit and COGS for all the periods combined is the same under each of
the methods.

As the prices of pencils were increasing, the ending inventory was highest and COGS
was lowest under FIFO.

Similarly, the ending inventory was lowest and COGS was highest under LIFO.
A summary of the three methods:
Inventory Accounting
FIFO
Weighted average cost
LIFO
IFRS/GAAP
Allowed under both
Allowed under both
Only US GAAP
Item
Purchased first to be
No segregation.
Recently purchased to
sold first
Contains both earliest
be sold first
and latest purchases
COGS
First purchased or
Average cost
manufactured
Ending inventory
Recent purchases
Recently purchased or
manufactured
Average cost
First purchased
Worked Example 2:
A company bought 400 generators at a price of $400 each on January 5. 300 of these generators
were sold at a price of $450 each by the end of March. On April 10, 250 more generators were
bought at a price of $325 each. By May 31, 225 generators were sold at a price of $500 each.
For the period ending June 30, what is the ending inventory using FIFO?
Solution:
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Inventories
Purchased
400
Sold
(300)
Remainder as at March 2012
100
Purchased further
250
Sold (100 old + 125 new)
(225)
Remainder (new)
125
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First in first our means that the items bought first are being sold first. Inventory amount is based on the
items which are left. Hence, inventory cost = 125 * 325 = $40,625.
3.6 Periodic Vs. perpetual inventory systems
The two types of inventory systems used to keep track of changes in the inventory are:

Periodic system

Perpetual system
Periodic system: The company measures the quantity of inventory on hand periodically. It is not
a continuous process unlike the perpetual system. Purchases are recorded in a purchases account.
Ending inventory is determined through a physical count of the units in inventory.
Cost of goods sold (COGS) = Beginning Inventory + Purchases – Ending Inventory
The formula above can be rearranged to determine the value of any of the items. For example:
Ending Inventory = Beginning Inventory + Purchases – COGS
Perpetual system: As the name implies, inventory and COGS are continuously updated in this
system. Purchases and sale of units are directly recorded in the inventory as and when they
occur.
Important point to be noted:
Specific Identification and FIFO: Periodic and perpetual systems give the same values for
COGS and ending inventory.
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LIFO and WAC: Periodic and perpetual system may give different values for COGS and
ending inventory.
3.7 Comparison of Inventory Valuation Methods
The following table compares LIFO vs. FIFO for different parameters when prices are rising and
inventory levels are stable:
LIFO vs. FIFO with rising prices and stable inventory levels
LIFO
FIFO
COGS
Higher
Lower
Taxes
Lower
Higher
Earnings before taxes (EBT)
Lower
Higher
(Net Lower
Higher
Ending inventory
Lower
Higher
Working capital (CA-CL)
Lower
Higher
Cash flow (after tax)
Higher
Lower
Earnings
after
taxes
Income)
Note: Weighted average costs provide results between FIFO and LIFO
Tips for remembering the table above:
1. Remember the pencils example of $1, $1, $2 and $2. Deducing the LIFO values from this example
for COGS, net income, ending inventory becomes simpler.
2. FIFO is the opposite of LIFO.
Other important points:
3. Cash flow (after tax) is higher under LIFO as taxes paid are lower.
4. Companies following U.S GAAP prefer LIFO because the taxes paid are lower
5. LIFO gives a better income statement and FIFO a better balance sheet as they reflect economic
reality or recent costs. Under LIFO, cost of goods sold in income statement shows the most recent costs
reflecting better quality. Similarly, under FIFO, ending inventory shows the most recent costs.
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4. Measurement of Inventory Value
Holding inventory for a prolonged period results in the risk of spoilage, obsolescence or decline
in prices. We define some terms first before looking at the differences in how inventory is
measured under IFRS and GAAP.
Net realizable value: Estimated selling price under ordinary business conditions minus
estimated costs necessary to get the inventory in condition for sale. NRV is from a seller’s
perspective.
Market value: Current replacement cost subject to lower or upper limits. Market value has
upper limit of net realizable value and lower limit of NRV less a normal profit margin. Market
value is from a buyer’s perspective.
Net realizable value = estimated sales price – estimated selling costs
Market value limits = (NRV - normal profit margin, NRV)
The following table describes how inventory is measured under IFRS and GAAP:
Inventory measurement under IFRS and GAAP
IFRS
GAAP
Lower of cost or net realizable value
Lower of cost or market value
If NRV is less than the balance sheet cost, the
If cost exceeds market, inventory is written down
inventory is “written down” to NRV and the loss
to market on balance sheet and the loss is
is recognized.
recognized.
If value recovers subsequently, inventory can be
If value recovers subsequently, no write up is
written up and gain is recognized in income
allowed.
statement. The amount of gain is limited to loss
previously recognized.
Commodities and agricultural goods prices can be
Commodities and agricultural goods prices can be
reported above historical cost.
reported above historical cost.
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Worked Example 3 (for measurement of inventory under IFRS):
In 2010, the inventory balance is 52 but the net realizable value is 49. The current replacement
cost is 47. The figure exceeds the net realizable value less a normal profit margin. In 2011, the
NRV was 5 greater than the carrying amount. Show the inventory values in 2010 and 2011
according to IFRS.
Solution:
2010: inventory balance = 52; NRV = 49. Since NRV is lower than the balance sheet cost of 52,
inventory is written down to 49. Loss recognized on income statement = 3.
2011: NRV = 54 as it is 5 greater than the carrying value of 49. Inventory value written up to 52.
Reversal of loss in income statement limited to 3.
Worked Example 4 (for measurement of inventory under GAAP):
In 2010, the inventory balance is 52 but the net realizable value is 49. The current replacement
cost is 47. The figure exceeds the net realizable value less a normal profit margin. In 2011, the
NRV was 5 greater than the carrying amount. Show the inventory values in 2010 and 2011
according to GAAP.
Solution:
Here replacement cost is the market value. According to U.S, GAAP, inventory is written down
to lower of cost or market value, i.e. 47 for 2010. However, you need to ensure that this number
47 is within the limits for market value (NRV and NRV- normal profit margin). 47 is less than
the upper limit - i.e. 49 (net realizable value). It is also greater than the lower limit as the
statement, “the figure exceeds the net realizable value less a normal profit margin” confirms.
Inventory value for 2010 = 47. For 2011, net realizable value = 52. Inventory value for 2011
stays at 47 as writing up is not permitted under U.S GAAP.
5. Presentation Disclosure
Note: Low testability but read the disclosures. Best way to remember is by going through
financial statements of a few companies adopting IFRS. Think of everything related to inventory
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that must be presented – carrying amount, write down, write up, how it was measure and
accounting policies.
IFRS requires the following financial statement disclosures concerning inventory:

The accounting policies used to measure inventory, including the cost formula

The total carrying amount of inventories and the carrying amount in classification (for
example, merchandise, raw materials, production supplies, work in progress, and finished
goods appropriate to entity)

The carrying amount of inventories carried at fair value less costs to sell

The amount of inventories recognized as an expense in the period (cost of sales)

The amount of any reversal of any write-down recognized as a reduction in cost of sales
in the period

What led to the reversal of a write-down in the inventories

Carrying amount of inventories pledged as a security for liabilities
Disclosures under U.S. GAAP are similar to IFRS except that it does not permit reversal of write
down of inventories. In addition, any income from liquidation of LIFO inventory must be
disclosed.
5.1 Changes in Inventory Valuation Method
A company may decide to change its inventory valuation method say from LIFO to FIFO. IFRS
and U.S. GAAP stipulate certain guidelines to make such a change acceptable.

If a company changes its accounting policy, the reason for the change must be justifiable.
For instance, one valid reason is that the change results in the financial statements
providing more reliable and reliant information.

Consistency of inventory costing is required under both IFRS and GAAP.

Historical reports need to be restated. Let’s say a company changed its inventory
accounting policy from LIFO to FIFO. Adjusting the financial statements retrospectively
will help in meaningful comparison. An exemption to retrospective statement under IFRS
applies when it is not practical to determine either period-specific costs or the cumulative
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effect of the change. Under U.S. GAAP, when a company changes from FIFO to LIFO,
retrospective adjustments are not needed. Changes will be accounted only on a
prospective basis.
6. Evaluation of Inventory Management
The choice of inventory valuation method impacts various components of the financial
statements such as cost of goods sold, net income, current assets and total assets. As a result, it
affects the financial ratios containing these items. The table below summarizes the impact of
valuation method on inventory-related ratios:
Ratio
Numerator
Denominator
Impact on ratio
Inventory turnover
Cost of goods sold is
Average inventory is lower
Higher under LIFO
higher under LIFO
LIFO
Days of inventory
No. of days are the same
Higher under LIFO
Lower under LIFO
Total asset turnover
Revenue is the same
Lower average total assets
Higher under LIFO
under LIFO
Current ratio
Ending inventory is
Current liabilities are the
lower under LIFO so
same
Lower under LIFO
current assets lower
Gross profit margin
Gross profit lower under
Revenue is the same
Lower under LIFO
Net income lower under
Lower average total assets
Lower under LIFO
LIFO as COGS is
under LIFO
LIFO as COGS is
higher
Return on assets
higher
Debt to equity
Debt is the same
Lower equity under LIFO.
Higher under LIFO
Equity = assets – liabilities.
Total assets under LIFO
are lower as ending
inventory is lower.
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Summary
Note: This summary has been adapted from the CFA Program curriculum.
The choice of inventory valuation method (cost formula or cost flow assumption) can have a
potentially significant impact on inventory carrying amounts and cost of sales. These in turn
impact other financial statement items, such as current assets, total assets, gross profit, and net
income. The financial statements and accompanying notes provide important information about a
company’s inventory accounting policies that the analyst needs to correctly assess financial
performance and compare it with that of other companies.
Key concepts in this reading are as follows:

Inventories are a major factor in the analysis of merchandising and manufacturing
companies. Such companies generate their sales and profits through inventory transactions on
a regular basis. An important consideration in determining profits for these companies is
measuring the cost of sales when inventories are sold.

The total cost of inventories comprises all costs of purchase, costs of conversion, and other
costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition. Storage
costs of finished inventory and abnormal costs due to waste are typically treated as expenses
in the period in which they occurred.

IFRS allow three inventory valuation methods (cost formulas): first-in, first- out (FIFO);
weighted average cost; and specific identification. The specific identification method is used
for inventories of items that are not ordinarily interchangeable and for goods or services
produced and segregated for specific projects. U.S. GAAP allow the three methods above
plus the last-in, first-out (LIFO) method.

A company must use the same cost formula for all inventories having a similar nature and
use to the entity.

The inventory accounting system (perpetual or periodic) may result in different values for
cost of sales and ending inventory when the weighted average cost or LIFO inventory
valuation method is used.

Under IFRS, inventories are measured at the lower of cost and net realisable value. Net
realisable value is the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of business less the
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estimated costs necessary to make the sale. Under U.S. GAAP, inventories are measured at
the lower of cost or market value. Market value is defined as current replacement cost subject
to an upper limit of net realizable value and a lower limit of net realizable value less a normal
profit margin. Reversals of previous write-downs are permissible under IFRS but not under
U.S. GAAP.

Consistency of inventory accounting policies is required under both U.S. GAAP and IFRS. If
a company changes an inventory accounting policy, the change must be justifiable and all
financial statements are accounted for retrospectively. The one exception is for a change to
the LIFO method under U.S. GAAP; the change is accounted for prospectively, and there is
no retrospective adjustment to the financial statements.

The choice of inventory valuation method affects a number of items on the financial
statements and any financial ratios that include inventory or cost of sales, whether directly or
indirectly. As a consequence, the analyst must carefully consider differences in inventory
valuation methods when evaluating a company’s performance in comparison to industry
performance or industry competitors’ performance.

The inventory turnover ratio, number of days of inventory ratio, and gross profit margin ratio
are useful in evaluating the management of a company’s inventory.

Financial statement disclosures provide information regarding the accounting policies
adopted in measuring inventories, the principal uncertainties regarding the use of estimates
related to inventories, and details of the inventory carrying amounts and costs. This
information can greatly assist analysts in their evaluation of a company’s inventory
management.
Next Steps

Work through the examples in the curriculum.

Solve the practice problems in the curriculum.

Solve the IFT Practice Questions associated with this reading.

Review the learning outcomes presented in the curriculum. Make sure that you can perform
the implied actions.
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