EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
DH1
Introducing Development
DH1.1
Thinking about the future
What is ‘development’?
The word development carries a multitude of meanings. A housing development involves
building or renovating houses. A student of child development is interested in the physical,
cognitive and emotional growth of children. In these materials we are using ‘development’
as shorthand for thinking about a positive future, as in this remark made by economic
geographer B W Hodder:
Development is the perceptible change in living standards for the vast majority of
the population.
B W Hodder (1980) Economic Development in the Tropics.
Methuen
For many people the concept of development has connotations of
growth, and for some the idea of continuous economic growth is
unacceptable; the ecosystem cannot survive it. There are many
questions about development that can fruitfully be explored through
project work, and the purpose of these resource materials is to help
you do that.
If you are doing a project that involves a question about natural
resources, industry, design, or economics – anything that relates to
‘the environment’ – you can draw on the ideas and activities in these
materials. And if you are interested in this general area but have not
yet decided exactly what to do for your project, there are some
suggestions in these materials that might help you get started.
Activity DH1.1
Project hint
For some examples of
projects, see the
project case studies
and starters in each of
the four Development
project areas: DD
(Dissertation), DN
(Investigation/
fieldwork), DP
(Performance) and
DA (Artefact).
What is ‘development’? What is ‘the environment’?
In your project, it could be useful to include some discussion of what ‘development’ means.
Jot down as many meanings of the word ‘development’ as you can think of, and write a sentence illustrating
each one.
How would you distinguish between ‘development’ and ‘modernisation’?
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Share your ideas in a small group and discuss whether the various meanings have any common features.
Similarly, explore the meaning of the word ‘environment’.
A note on scale
When discussing development, it is often important to consider scale. For example, there
is variation of wealth on a very large scale between regions of the world, and within
nations (e.g. the ‘north-south divide’ in the UK). There is also variation within communities
on a local scale.
Thinking about the future: Copenhagen 2009
In many Western countries, the early 21st century saw an increase in concern about the
future. There were campaigns about poverty and justice (many based on the Millennium
Development Goals), about environmental issues in general and about climate change in
particular.
To read about the Millennium Development Goals go to:
http://www.undp.org/mdg/basics.shtml
In the build-up to the Copenhagen climate change summit in 2009, it
was expected that governments would act on the perilous state of
the Earth’s ecosystems. There were some violent clashes as people
demonstrated their concerns. This summit was part of a series of
United Nations gatherings that had taken place over the decades on
development and more recently on climate change, the major ones
being in Stockholm (1972), Rio de Janeiro (1992), the meeting that
produced the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and Johannesburg (2002).
Project hint
International summit
meetings and
agreements, such as
Copenhagen, raise
political, philosophical
and ethical questions
that can be explored
through project work.
For an example, see
Section DH1.2
‘Copenhagen’.
Yet, overwhelmingly, the 2009 summit failed to produce the sorts of
international agreements that climate-change scientists were
demanding. A report in The Guardian on 19 December 2009, had the headline “Low
targets, goals dropped: Copenhagen ends in failure” – just one of many similar reports.
The Guardian reported that “the so-called Copenhagen accord ‘recognises’ the scientific
case for keeping temperature rises to no more than 2°C but does not contain commitments
to emissions reductions to achieve that goal”. The Guardian went on to say that the British
Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, had “hailed the night as a success on five out of six
measures” but that the accord had “disappointed African and other vulnerable countries
which had been holding out for deeper emission cuts to hold the global temperature rise to
1.5°C this century”.
John Sauven, Executive Director of Greenpeace UK, was quoted inThe Guardian as
saying: “The city of Copenhagen is a crime scene tonight, with the guilty men and women
fleeing to the airport.” Ed Miliband [then the UK climate change secretary] commented: “It
is now evident that beating global warming will require a radically different model of politics
than the one on display here in Copenhagen.”
To read the full report, see:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/dec/18/copenhagen-deal
2
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Frameworks for thinking about the future
1962 saw the publication of Silent Spring by natural history writer Rachel Carson. She
documented the effects on the environment of synthetic herbicides and pesticides and
took a critical look at the information put out by the manufacturers, pointing out that it was
often incomplete and misleading though accepted uncritically by officialdom and the public.
In particular she looked at the effects of pesticides on birds. The book was serialised in the
New Yorker and was widely read. Many people see it as the effective starting point of the
environmental movement.
During the 1970s there was an increasing realisation that environmental issues should not
be seen in isolation from social and economic factors. In 1983 the United Nations
established the World Commission on Environment and Development. Known more widely
as the Brundtland Commission (chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland, a former prime
minister of Norway) it was created to address growing concern “about the accelerating
deterioration of the human environment and natural resources and the consequences of
that deterioration for economic and social development”.
For the full report, see:
http://www.un-documents.net/wced-ocf.htm
Sustainable development
In 1987, the report of the Brundtland Commission Our Common Future proposed a
definition of sustainable development as development that “meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs”.
The Wikipedia entry for sustainable development states that this definition contains within
it two key concepts:
the concept of ‘needs’, in particular the essential needs of the world’s poor, to
which overriding priority should be given;
and
the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organisation
on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs.
The idea is often represented diagrammatically as in Figure 1(a). This representation has
been criticised as being unreal as it suggests that the different circles can grow
independently of each other – for instance that the economic sphere can grow without
limits, so a different image has been proposed. In Figure 1(b) the economy is seen as
existing within the social sphere, and both have to operate within the ecological limits of a
finite planet.
3
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
(a)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_
development
(b)
Webster, Ken (2004). Rethink,
Refuse. Reduce. FSC Publications,
Preston Montford
Figure 1: Sustainable development represented as (a) interlocking circles (b) nested
circles.
A number of other authors reject the very term ‘sustainable development’ as being
essentially oxymoronic (self-contradictory), or criticise it as being too vague, or failing to
recognise the interdependence of decisions or elements within a complex system, or of
hiding the inequitable power relations at local, national and international levels. Some
critics of the term argue that it is intrinsically unmeasurable and therefore useless. Others,
including the United Nations, reject this criticism and have attempted to define indicators of
sustainable development – see, for example:
http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ind/ind_index.shtml
A variety of world views
The chart in Table 1 (below) represents six different frameworks (or world views) for
thinking about the future. Examples of each can be found in the ways that different groups,
or individuals, speak or write about development, the environment and the future.
4
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Table 1: World views, or frameworks, for thinking about development and the future.
World
View
Forward looking
Backward looking
Nothing to be
done
A linear
approach
In these
views the
world is like
a machine
and we are
in control.
1. We can carry on with
‘business as usual’ and as
we get richer we can make
sure it is greener and
fairer. The ingenuity of
humankind, the growth of
scientific knowledge and
technological advances will
allow for solutions to the
global problems of poverty
and climate change.
Economic growth comes
first. People need to be
educated to be more
responsible in their
choices.
This is the linear economy
model.
2. We have gone down
the wrong lines with
uncritical growth in
consumption. We need to
find a more careful and
fairer way of doing things.
For some it will mean
making do with less. This
will involve a dramatic
change in the way we
live, especially in the light
of growing world
population. The whole
global economic system
will need to change to
accommodate this.
This is an eco-social
model.
3. We have already
reached tipping points
with environmental
degradation and
climate change. It is
too late to do anything.
It is now every person
for themselves, as the
strong get into the
lifeboats and struggle
for survival.
A circular
approach
These views
are based
on systems
thinking.
4. We need to change the
operating system of the
way the world works so
that all materials are used
again and again, either
through the technical or
biological cycles. This will
increasingly be done using
current solar income
(rather than the energy
stored in fossil fuels) and
in a way that restores
natural capital rather than
using it up. We need to
detoxify the planet as we
go along. This change will
be led by business as
systems are developed
that ensure that reuse of
materials increases
profitability.
This is a circular economy
model.
5. Before the Industrial
Revolution humans lived
and worked in harmony
with natural cycles. We
need to go back to this
and this time around take
extreme care of every
species and every
habitat. Biodiversity and
ecological balance are
goals to which all must
aspire.
The aim is economic
sufficiency not excess.
This is a deep green
model.
6. It is probably all
over, brothers and
sisters, but life and
death are and always
have been inextricably
linked. Let us care for
each other and live in
hope.
5
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Activity DH1.2
A variety of world views
Find examples of people or organisations talking or writing about the future. Assign each to one of the cells
in Table 1. Use the references listed below to help you get started.
References for Activity DH1.2
David Cameron’s speech to the World Economic Forum in 2012:
http://www.number10.gov.uk/news/david-cameron-addresses-theworld-economic-forum/
Arne Naess of Greenpeace:
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/about/deep-green/deepgreen-feb-2009/
The Ellen MacArthur Foundation:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zCRKvDyyHmI
Living in the Last Days:
http://arewelivinginthelastdays.com/
Sustainable development teaching resources:
http://www.educapoles.org/uploads/teaching_dossiers_files/dp_cze
_05_en.pdf
Project hint
A project in the
general area of
Development might
include a review of
what other people
have written about the
issues involved. It
could be interesting to
reflect on the
particular world
view(s) that they hold.
The Preppers’ Network:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W7JnClHTCUQ
Survivalism:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survivalism
Deep Green Resistance:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Green_Resistance.
The Jehovah’s Witnesses:
http://www.watchtower.org/e/bh/article_09.htm
Activity DH1.3
Project hint
A Performance project
could involve
exploring and ‘acting
out’ some of these
world views.
The best world view?
Following on from Activity DH1.2, reflect on your own world view for thinking about future development.
Of the views listed in Table 1, which do you think is the best? What do you mean by ‘best’? To help with this,
you might find it helpful to think in terms of ethical frameworks (Section DH3.1). For example, in utilitarian
framework, the best approach is one that results in the greatest amount of happiness (which might involve a
few people becoming very happy, or a larger number of people becoming slightly happier).
What arguments could you put forward to support your own world view? What might be the counterarguments?
6
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
DH1.2
Scarce resources
Limits to growth
Following the Second World War conventional wisdom held that growth was a good thing
to be pursued. It was widely assumed that as economies would grow after the shortages of
war time then there would be more things for people to enjoy, that more taxes would be
paid leading to better services such as a national health service (founded in Britain in
1948) and education for all, and that in the long run everyone would benefit. Although
there was then, and continues to be now, division over the desirable extent of taxation, the
role of state and how money should be distributed, there was in the 1950s and 1960s little
questioning as to whether or not economic growth should be pursued.
In 1972 a book appeared that was to challenge this conceptual foundation of desirable
development. In Limits to Growth, Donella Meadows, Dennis Meadows, Jørgen Randers
and William Behrens lll looked at world population, industrialisation, pollution, food
production and resource depletion. They developed a computer model to gain insights into
what might happen, explaining the purpose of the model thus:
In this first simple world model, we are interested only in the broad behavior
modes of the population-capital system. By behavior modes we mean the
tendencies of the variables in the system (population or pollution, for example) to
change as time progresses. A variable may increase, decrease, remain constant,
oscillate, or combine several of these characteristic modes. For example, a
population growing in a limited environment can approach the ultimate carrying
capacity of that environment in several possible ways. It can adjust smoothly to an
equilibrium below the environmental limit by means of a gradual decrease in
growth rate... It can overshoot the limit and then die back again in either a smooth
or an oscillatory way... Or it can overshoot the limit and in the process decrease
the ultimate carrying capacity by consuming some necessary nonrenewable
resource... This behavior has been noted in many natural systems. For instance,
deer or goats, when natural enemies are absent, often overgraze their range and
cause erosion or destruction of the vegetation.
Limits to Growth, Donella H Meadows et al, Universe Books 1972.
They concluded:
If the present growth trends in world population, industrialization, pollution, food
production, and resource depletion continue unchanged, the limits to growth on
this planet will be reached sometime within the next 100 years. The most probable
result will be a rather sudden and uncontrollable decline in both population and
industrial capacity.
But on a more optimistic note they also concluded that it is possible to alter these trends
and establish a condition of sustainable economic and ecological stability in which
everyone’s needs are satisfied and all are able to realise their individual human potential.
Almost inevitably, Limits to Growth has been challenged in the decades since its
publication. For links to several relevant articles see:
7
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Limits_to_Growth
Sustainable living
Although Limits to Growth has been challenged, the authors revisited the topic 30 years
later and during this time the thinking has become more widely accepted; it has proved
fairly robust. Thus the alternatives posed here are either unsustainable growth or stability.
In the decades that followed the publication of Limits to Growth there has been a multifaceted search for sustainable development. The word ‘development’ has connotations
of change for the better, whilst the word ‘sustainable’ has been defined in many ways. An
early definition came from the Brundtland Commission (see Section DH1.1), which defined
it as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs".
In 1991, the World Conservation Union (IUCN), United Nations Environmental Programme
(UNEP) and the World Wide Fund for Nature/World Wildlife Fund (WWF) identified three
basic objectives for sustainable living:

To maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems;

To preserve biological diversity;

To use natural resources and ecosystems sustainably, or, where this is not possible,
wisely, as in the case of non-renewable resources such as minerals.
Caring for the Earth – A Guide to Sustainable Living, IUCN, UNEP, WWF 1991.
The ultimate goal of this is a sustainable society: a society which grows and prospers while
living within the carrying capacity of its supporting ecosystems, and which is underpinned
by the philosophy of caring for all living creatures. As set out in a subsequent publication,
this goal can apparently be achieved through applying the nine principles of sustainable
living:

Respecting and caring for the community of life;

Improving the quality of life;

Conserving the Earth’s vitality and diversity;

Minimising the depletion of non-renewable resources;

Keeping within the Earth’s carrying capacity;

Changing personal attitudes and practices;

Enabling communities to care for their own environments;

Providing a national framework for integrating development and conservation

Creating a global alliance.
J. Yeld (1997) Caring for the Earth – South Africa. WWF Stellenbosch.
Activity DH1.4
Sustainability
In a small group, discuss whether you agree with the statement that ‘sustainability is just a comfort concept’.
8
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
To help guide your discussion, look at the terms used in the nine principles of sustainable living (such as
‘community of life’, ‘quality of life’) and consider how they might be defined and measured.
Runaway growth
Is sustainable development achievable, or is the search for such development a fools’
errand that is actually just hiding ‘business as usual’? Some Deep Ecology thinkers (such
as Arne Naess, Bill Devall and George Sessions) argue that all species have a right to live
and flourish and that everything is interconnected within networks of interlocking systems.
Thus sustained change in any one direction (such as economic growth, or increasing
consumption, or simply human population increase) is intrinsically unsustainable.
Scientists such as James Lovelock (author of the Gaia hypothesis) argue that crucial
tipping points are either imminent or have already arrived. Central to this is the concept of
positive feedback loops. In The Revenge of Gaia (Penguin 2007), Lovelock identifies six
examples:
The ice albedo feedback – as snow melts due to global warming less sunlight is
reflected back into space. So dark ground or sea emerge which absorb sunlight,
thereby accelerating the process. [Albedo (‘whiteness’) refers to the ability of a
surface to reflect light and other radiation.]
As the oceans warm there is more nutrient-poor water, hence fewer algae. This
reduces the rate of pump-down of CO2 and the generation of white reflecting
marine stratus clouds.
Increased temperature on land leads to less tropical forest cover. As forests are a
cooling mechanism this increases temperature leading to even less cover – and
so on.
Boreal forests are dark and heat-absorbing. As the temperature increases and the
boreal forest increases it absorbs more heat, leading to further warming. [Boreal
forest (‘northern forest’) is evergreen coniferous forest common in northern Europe
and Asia.]
As forest and algal ecosystems die they release more CO2 and methane into the
air; these are both greenhouse gases.
The methane deposited in clathrates is stable in the cold or at high pressure; if
these melt it will result in large volumes of methane entering the atmosphere.
[Clathrates are chemical compounds that form lattice structures with spaces large
enough to contain small molecules.]
Activity DH1.5
Runway growth
Use an Excel spreadsheet to explore the growth of something (eg, population, use of oil) that increases by 5
percent per year over 120 years. Use formulas such as A2=A1+1 for the year and B2=B1*1.05 for the thing
that is growing. Plot a line graph of the output.
How long does the thing take to double in size? How long to increase to 10 times the original size, 100 times
the original size, 10,000 times the original size? Discuss the implications of this in real life.
9
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Activity DH1.5 illustrates exponential growth – that is, compound growth by a constant
percentage in a given time interval. Even if the percentage is small, the growth speeds up
with time and something that starts off quite small and slow-growing can soon be large and
increasing rapidly (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Linear and exponential growth.
Material shortages
Crude oil is a finite resource, and sooner or later production will drop after reaching a
maximum (Figure 3). The facts of peak oil are well understood even if there is
disagreement about the date. You might also be aware that demand for copper is once
again soaring, as is its price (Figure 4), following a drop in 2008; one consequence is an
increase in copper theft, which comes to many people’s attention when trains are delayed
because someone has stolen the copper used in signalling.
10
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Figure 3: Oil discovery and production.
Figure 4: Fluctuation in the price of copper 1986-2011.
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Copper_Price_History_USD.png)
11
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
What is less well known is the shortage of certain chemical
elements known as the rare earth metals. These include indium
used for screens on computers and phones, neodymium used for
magnets including those used in electric and hybrid vehicles (the
Toyota Prius has about 1 kg per car) as well as in wind turbines
which might have up to 300 kg. Boron is mixed with small
quantities of dysprosium to enhance the operation temperature in
small, lightweight permanent magnets. Erbium is a key element in
the optical fibres used in telecommunications. At present, 97
percent of the rare earth elements are mined in China which is
cutting back on exports and using more of the materials in its own
industries.
Project hint
For your project, you
could investigate an
element that is in
short supply and look
into the social,
political and economic
implications as well as
possible alternative
ways of ameliorating
the situation.
See Section DN1.2
‘iPad’ for an example
of an Investigation
project in this area.
Other elements are in short supply or uneconomical to produce,
such as the tellurium used in solar cells. Some common materials
such as phosphorus, which is used widely in detergents and fertilisers, are not actually in
short supply. But according to the journal Nature Materials (March 2011) there is a danger
that with the population growth and increased use of biofuels, these resources might be
quickly running out. With many companies buying materials or components on a just-intime basis, even a hiccup in supply can be very damaging.
An obvious solution is to recycle materials but, as Activity DH1.6 shows, that is only a
partial answer.
Activity DH1.6
Recycling
Let us suppose that 80 percent of a material is recycled each year. Set up a
spread sheet model with 100 in year 1 and the formula B2=B1*0.8 etc. See what
happens over 50 years of recycling at 80 percent. How many years does it take to
lose half of the material? How long before less than 1 percent is still available?
Plot this on a line graph.
Project hint
See Section DN2.2
‘Recycling’ for some
suggestions for
questionnaire-based
Field Study projects in
this area.
Activity DH1.6 illustrates exponential decay, which occurs when a fixed percentage of
something is lost in a given time interval. Although the rate of loss slows down with time, it
keeps on shrinking down towards zero. If a finite resource is used, and less than 100
percent is recovered and reused or recycled, then sooner or later it will run out. It will be
used up. Already some of the rare earth metals are more concentrated in waste or landfill
than they were in the original mines from which they came.
12
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
DH1.3
Linear or circular?
Modelling the economy
Linear economy
The current economic model is based on a linear economy system of ‘Take-MakeDispose’ (Figure 5) in which companies make money through selling things and much of
the stuff produced ends up as waste or in landfill. Governments wanting to keep up their
tax revenue benefit from this throughput of resources – but in a finite system (the planet
Earth) it is ultimately unsustainable. Recycling is only a partial and indeed short-term
answer as there is a constant loss either to landfill or incineration.
Figure 5: Linear economy.
Cradle to Cradle
In 2002, chemist Michael Braungart and architect William McDonough published a book
called Cradle to Cradle: rethinking the way we make things.
The latest edition is:
Braungart, M. and McDonough, W. (2008). Cradle to Cradle: rethinking the way we make
things. London, Vintage.
Braungart and McDonough asked the question: why not redesign materials and artefacts
so that all the materials used can be recovered? Those which the authors call biological
13
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
nutrients are those which can be broken down and ultimately improve the soil. Ideally,
they can be ‘cascaded’ before going back into the soil. For example, wood (biomass) can
be used for burning to generate electricity (a limited single use) or it can first be used for
building, then for furniture, then for particle board or paper before being burned. The ash
can then be returned to the forest. This will only work if toxic materials are not used or
produced in the process.
The technical nutrients are those materials (metals and plastics) that are not suitable for
a biological cycle: they are non-biodegradable or have toxic qualities. These can be –
some would say must be – recovered and used again without loss of quality as far as
possible. They are food for a technical cycle – hence the idea of ‘nutrients’. Braungart and
McDonough coined the phrase ‘waste = food’ to summarise this
idea.
Project hint
A hybrid material is something in which there are mixtures of
technical and/or biological ‘nutrients’ that cannot be easily separated
and recovered at a product’s end of life (the value-laden term
‘monstrous hybrid’ is sometimes used).
A Performance can be
an effective way to
communicate ideas.
See Section DP1.1
‘waste = food’.
The authors coin the term upcycling to mean reuse with an
increase in quality, and downcycling to refer to a degradation of
quality in a re-used material. Products that are hybrids typically
cannot be upcycled or downcycled, but instead end up in landfills or
incinerators.
Project hint
An Artefact project
could involve making
something from
‘waste’ materials and
demonstrating an
increase in quality.
See Part DA2 of these
resources, Section
DA2.1.
If all products are so designed so that the biological and technical
nutrients can be separated on disassembly and if the systems are in
place for recovery of the technical nutrients and decomposition of
the biological nutrients – and all the transport, manufacture and
other processes are powered by renewable energy – then the issue of shortages has gone
a long way to being addressed.
William McDonough has said:
Project hint
Renewable energy
could be explored in
an Investigation
project. See Section
DN2.1 ‘Energy’ for
suggestions.
I think if anybody here has trouble with the concepts of
design humility; just reflect on the fact that it took us 5,000
years to put wheels on our luggage. We are not that smart.
And we have a big job ahead of us here. Well, how we get
to do these things, and things like the largest green rose in
the world, and buildings that are starting to act like living things like trees? Imagine
the design that makes all oxygen, sequesters carbon, fixes nitrogen, distils water,
provides habitat for hundreds of species, accrues solar energies as fuel, makes
complex sugars in food, and creates microclimates and self-replicates.
Commercial manufacturers can apply for their products to be C2C certified according to
criteria that are set out on the MBDC (McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry) website:
http://mbdc.com/detail.aspx?linkid=2&sublink=9
Activity DH1.7
Upcycling and downcycling
Read this article on downcycling:
14
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
http://www.examiner.com/green-living-in-louisville/downcycling-reusing-or-recycling-a-product-for-analternative-lesser-quality-purpose
Then compare with some of the examples of upcycling:
http://toponlineengineeringdegree.com/?page_id=116
Write a short explanation of the difference between upcycling and downcycling, using examples from these
two websites.
Circular economy
Now suppose this principle of Cradle to Cradle is extended into a system based on this
way of thinking. It could be called circular economy or closed loop economy. This is
represented in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Circular economy
This system relies on there being no waste at all apart from waste heat. Nature is seen as
a source of capital that needs to be maintained or enhanced, not as a resource to be used
up. What was compostable waste in a linear economy is cycled back into the soil, possibly
being used on the way to make gas for cooking in a biodiesel, or being cascaded through
various uses.
15
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
The technical nutrients – largely metals and plastics – are kept in a
constant flow in as high a quality as possible, first as products, then
as components and only latterly as materials. It is more than
recycling as that suggests only a partial reclamation, and in many
existing recycling processes there is a downcycling – that is a loss
of quality.
Figure 7 shows these flows in more detail. It shows different loops
for the cycling of materials – biological nutrients on the left and
technical nutrients on the right.
The tighter the loop for technical nutrients the more profitable it is for
companies. This demonstrates how recycling is only sensible when
the options of maintenance, reuse and remanufacture have been
exhausted.
Project hint
The circular economy
can underpin a wide
variety of projects. For
examples, see
Section DN1.1
‘Anaerobic digester’
(Investigation),
Section DP1.1
‘Waste=food’
(Performance),
Section DA1.1 ‘Tennis
bag’ (Artefact) and
Section DH1.1 ‘iPad’
(Dissertation).
The biological cycle portrays the way that materials can have multiple uses before being
returned to the soil.
Figure 7: Loops for the cycling of biological and technical materials.
16
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Keeping technical nutrients in a continuous flow requires some major systems changes.
Products have to be designed for easy disassembly, all components need to be made of
chemically suitable materials, and there need to be infrastructure systems in place to make
this all possible. This infrastructure might include legislation and tax incentives, firms
collaborating over collection of recovered materials (both biological and technical
nutrients).
In practice
Some companies are seeing the circular economy as a long-term strategy to remain
profitable. B&Q, for example, anticipates that by 2030 it will be leasing/lending some
categories of tools. If you are putting up some shelves and buy an electric drill the chance
is that it will be used for only 10 minutes in its whole lifetime, so it might make more sense
for the store to have very high quality drills that they rent out, which are designed for
longevity and easy repair, and where the company retains ownership of the materials. This
also opens up the possibilities of shared ownership or collaborative use.
Activity DH1.8
Collaborative use
Watch this TedX talk by Rachel Botsman (16 minutes):
http://www.ted.com/talks/rachel_botsman_the_case_for_collaborative_consumpti
on.html
Project hint
For an example of an
Artefact project
exploring collaborative
use,
see Section DA1.2
‘Fashion share’.
What do you think are the advantages, and disadvantages, of this approach?
In groups, discuss to what extent you consider collaborative use an attractive way of having your needs and
aspirations met.
In January 2012, the Ellen MacArthur Foundation published a report,Towards the circular
economy – economic and business rationale for an accelerated transition, which argued
that the circular economy represents a net material cost saving opportunity of USD 340 to
380 billion p.a. at EU level for a ‘transition scenario’ and USD 520 to 630 billion p.a., or a
recurrent 3 to 3.9 percent of 2010 EU GDP, for an ‘advanced scenario’. In other words,
massive sums are at stake and as Europe looks for a strategy growth, it is possible – even
likely – that this will be part of the mix.
You can read the full report, or the executive summary on:
http://www.thecirculareconomy.org/
However, not everybody is convinced that a circular economy is achievable in practice. For
example, environmental scientist Prof. Friedrich Schmidt-Bleek (formerly of the Wuppertal
Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy, now Director of the Factor 10 Institute in
France) has questioned whether the principles can be successfully applied on a large
scale and a group at the Stockholm School of Economics has pointed out some practical
difficulties that impede the re-use of materials:
http://gin.confex.com/gin/2003/techprogram/P100.HTM
17
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Critics have also expressed concern that, for industrial design, Braungart and McDonough
have registered the term ‘Cradle to Cradle’ as a trademark, which restricts its use by
others.
Activity DH1.9
Exploring the circular economy
Work through the Ellen MacArthur Foundation resource G5 The circular economy – the need for
infrastructure change:
http://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/education/resources
18
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
DH2
Development and design
DH2.1
Theories of design
To look at the magazine section of a Sunday newspaper one might be forgiven for thinking
that design is all about the latest and most fashionable consumer durables, clothes or
interiors.
Activity DH2.1
What is design?
Make a mood board with cuttings from papers and magazines based on the way they present ‘design’. What
does this suggest about the meaning of the word?
Classic design theory
In traditional art and design the concept of ‘design’ referred very much to the aesthetics.
Certain dimensions were considered important in developing an aesthetically pleasing
result. For example, graphic designers need to think about five elements of design (line,
shape, texture, value and colour, and space), they also need to think about four principles
of design (movement, balance, emphasis and unity). See, for example:
http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/theory/cgdt/designtheory.htm
There is much more to design than this. We can think hypothetically and imagine things
that do not exist, then bring them into being – or some of them at least. We can evaluate
our ideas both ‘on the drawing board’ and through testing mock-ups and prototypes, we
can reflect consciously on our ideas and make improvements. We can work systematically
or intuitively, in small moves or big leaps of the imagination. And in doing so we change
the world – for better or for worse. This is not only true of things like houses or cars or
iPhones but also for systems such as primary health care, training a team for a match or
planning a holiday.
In 1995 the UK Design Council asked practising designers, people from industry, and
children, for their personal definitions. These included:
I believe design is intention, purpose, plan: and that good design is therefore by
inference, where such a plan has been well conceived, well executed and of
benefit to someone.
Milner Gray
Design: the creative harmonic between culture and industry, technology and
consumers, and engineering and art.
Dick Powell
Every aspect of our daily lives has been designed, but some things were better
designed than others.
Alice Rawsthorn
The Design Council has a more recent briefing paper on ‘What is design’:
http://www0.hku.hk/bse/interdisciplinary/what_is_design.pdf
19
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Activity DH2.2
Good design?
In groups brainstorm the keywords around ‘design’ and ‘good design’ and attempt your own definition of the
latter. Share these between groups.
Project hint
Design as problem-solving
One view of designing is that it is a problem-solving activity. Various
algorithms have been developed. Sometimes these are called the
rational model of design, or technical problem solving. The basic
principle is that there is a design process that can be broken down
into different stages wherein the designer works within known
constraints and objectives. A typical sequence can be as in Table 2.
Table 2: A design framework
Design is central to
any Artefact project,
and in such a project
you will need to reflect
on the design
processes that you
use. For more on
Artefact projects, see
Part DA of these
resources.
Brief
A single sentence describing the
requirement
Analysis and
research
Refining the brief, analysing the task,
researching solutions
Specification
A detailed list of points the artefact should
satisfy
Ideas and
development
Exploration of different approaches, and
decision-making
Production plan
Materials, techniques & processes, timescale
Realisation
The actual making of the product
Testing and
evaluation
A report of your work. Does it meet the
specification? How could it be improved?
Reflection-in-action
The problem-solving approach has been criticised as being contrary to the way that
designers actually work. There is evidence that most designing is a much more intuitive
process in which designers operate more emotionally, creatively and in an improvised
manner rather than through a series of logical steps. There is an on-going iteration
between framing (conceptualising the problem, defining goals and objectives), making a
move (a tentative design decision) and evaluating the moves. Over time there is progress
towards a solution that can be tested in a real environment. Sometimes this is called the
action-centric approach or reflection-in-action after the thinking of Donald Schon (1930
–1997) whose work includes ‘The Reflective Practitioner; how professionals think in action’
(1983).
20
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Activity DH2.3
Does it work like this?
Consider some thing/event/activity that you have recently designed and ask to what extent the process in
Table 2 was actually followed. Share this in groups.
DH2.2-2.3
Design for a circular economy
Whole systems design
One of the difficulties with the way that designers operate today is that designing and
realising the solution to one problem can often have unintended consequences thereby
creating another problem.
A systems approach is when you do not just look at one thing and decide how to make it
better. Instead you view the ‘problems’ under consideration as inter-related parts of a
larger system. You try to optimise the system rather than just make one element more
efficient. The aim is to design for the full cycle beyond the initial client or customer.
Mushrooms and coffee
In 2010, a company called BTTR Ventures won an award for their innovative approach to
business. The founders Nikhil Arora and Alejandro Velez were fourth-year students at the
University of California, Berkeley, USA, when they came up with the idea that started the
company. They had found that gourmet mushrooms could be grown entirely on recycled
coffee grounds, and successfully developed a business plan and a production scheme
which had the added benefit of supplying enriched compost to local farms and plant
nurseries.
You can read more details at:
http://www.care2.com/causes/mushrooms-grown-from-coffee-grounds-wins-svninnovation-award.html#ixzz1jFWvSiOa
Activity DH2.4
Whole systems design
Look at the Autodesk video on ‘Whole Systems Design’:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L06ZgG0FV4c.
In a group, try to give examples of whole systems design. Try to think of existing examples of ‘whole systems
optimisation’ where there are multiple benefits to a variety of stakeholders.
21
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Cradle to Cradle design
In their book Cradle to Cradle (see Section DH1) Braungart and
McDonough argue that good design uses the safe and productive
processes of nature’s ‘biological metabolism’ as a model for
developing a ‘technical metabolism’ flow of industrial materials.
Product components can be designed for continuous recovery and
reutilisation as biological and technical nutrients within these
metabolisms.
The Cradle to Cradle (C2C) framework also addresses energy,
water and social responsibility through the following tenets:
Project hint
The application of
Cradle to Cradle
design principles can
be a major element of
an Artefact project.
For an example, see
Part DA1, Section
DA1.1 ‘Tennis bag’.
For further
suggestions, see Part
DA2.
Eliminate the concept of waste. “Waste equals food”.
Design products and materials with life cycles that are safe for human health and
the environment and that can be reused perpetually through biological and
technical metabolisms. Create and participate in systems to collect and recover
the value of these materials following their use.
Power with renewable energy. “Use current solar income”.
Maximise the use of renewable energy.
Respect human & natural systems. “Celebrate diversity”.
Manage water use to maximise quality, promote healthy
ecosystems and respect local impacts. Guide operations
and stakeholder relationships using social responsibility.
Project hint
Renewable energy is
Renewable energy is
a topic that can
a topic that can
fruitfully be explored
fruitfully be explored
in an Investigation
in an Investigation
project. See Section
project. See Section
DN2.1 ‘Energy’ for
DN2.1 ‘Energy’ for
some suggestions.
some suggestions.
See:
http://www.mbdc.com/detail.aspx?linkid=1&sublink=6
See, also, the pamphlet by McDonough and Braungart Design for a Cradle to Cradle
Future:
http://www.mbdc.com/images/Design_For_C2C_Future.pdf
Activity DH2.5
Cradle to Cradle products
Working in groups, identify a Cradle to Cradle product and prepare a two-minute presentation about it.
Explain in what ways it conforms to C2C principles.
You can find some case studies and examples of C2C products on the Ellen MacArthur Foundation website:
http://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/business
Open design
In the collaborative spirit of our age some designers are working in an open way,
analogous to developing open source software and publications. See:
http://opendesignnow.org/
and especially the article by Jos de Mul on ‘Redesigning design’.
22
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Activity DH2.6
Open design
Do some internet searches on themes such as ‘open design’, ‘collaborative consumption’ and ‘participatory
design’.
Discuss how far this is a different model from the traditional one of a company (the client) commissioning
someone to design a product, which is then sold to a consumer.
What do you think is the relationship between C2C and open design? Is it possible, or desirable, to have one
without the other?
Biomimicry
A central dimension of the circular economy is that we can learn from nature. This can
happen at three levels.
At its simplest we can design products that mimic the forms of
nature. Well-known examples are Velcro or the sharkskin swimsuit.
An interesting example in robotics can be found on Festo’s video:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKJybDb1dz0&feature=relted
Project hint
Biomimicry could
provide inspiration for
an Artefact project.
See Part DA2 Section
DA2.2 for some
suggestions.
At the next level we can design things that mimic processes in
nature. An example would be self-cleaning surfaces on buildings or
textiles, inspired by the ‘self-cleaning’ structure of a lotus leaf. See two video clips:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uZTK6HBaxI4
and, a Scientific American note on self-cleaning nano-technology:
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=self-cleaningmaterials
At a macro level our economy could be designed to to follow nature
in its overall systems – materials flow and are endlessly cycled,
powered by the Sun. In this, waste = food. An industrial example of
this can be seen on this seven-minute video about InterfaceFlor:
http://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/videos?video=Business%2
0Case%20Study%201%3A%20Interface%20Flor
The underlying thinking is explained on Rethinking Progress (four
minutes):
Project hint
Biomimetic materials,
or objects, could be
explored through
laboratory
experiments in an
Investigation project.
See Part DN2 Section
DN2.3 ‘Biomimicry’ for
some suggestions.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zCRKvDyyHmI
A further seven-minute video looks at how the Netherlands is moving towards a circular
economy:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=65Vt-mTYfW4&feature=relmfu
23
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
DH3
Development and philosophy
DH3.1
Doing good
Broadly speaking, ethics is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with the moral
principles that govern a person’s or a group’s behaviour; it deals with right and wrong,
good and bad. Some people choose to focus on the ethics of personal behaviour, others
think it is more important to look at group behaviour and the systems within which
individuals operate. In this section we explore both approaches in relation to Development.
Let us start by examining what we mean by ‘good’. What is it that makes certain types of
behaviour good or bad? This question is the central question of the intellectual discipline of
ethics. There are four widely used approaches (ethical frameworks) to answering this
question.
Ethical frameworks
Project hint
The four main ethical frameworks are: utilitarianism, divine
command theory, the theory of rights and responsibilities and
virtue theory.
A Dissertation EP
could compare the
strengths and
weaknesses of these
four ethical
frameworks (ways of
thinking) in relation to
the challenge posed
by depletion of the
Earth’s natural capital
and the production of
waste.
Utilitarianism
A utilitarian believes that the right thing to do is the action which has
the most beneficial consequences overall. What does ‘benefit’
mean? Utilitarians explain benefit in terms of happiness, pleasure or
welfare. So the right action, or the right system, may be defined as
the one which creates the most happiness for the greatest number
of people. Applied to questions of development, this approach
analyses the benefits and drawbacks of courses of action in terms of their impact on
conscious creatures: creatures that can suffer, or feel pleasure. It is thought to be a
strength of utilitarianism that it gives reasons for doing the right thing: the right thing will
make life better, overall. But there are problems making sense of how to ‘add up’
happiness, and some will argue that the value of the natural world should not be seen
purely through the lens of human interests. Doesn’t the natural world have a value in its
own right?
Divine command
Another conventional approach to ethics is to identify the right course of action with the
one that is commanded by a divine being – the divine command theory of ethics. The
application of theological teaching to the question of how the natural world has been
treated has been controversial. Some have interpreted texts from the book of Genesis as
implying that humanity has ‘dominion over’ the natural world, and we can thus more or less
do as we please with it. It has been argued that texts like this are a licence for disregarding
nature. On the other hand, the fact that the Bible also designates humanity as a ‘steward’
of nature suggests that God would expect a more caring approach. Critics of the divine
command theory will point out the central difficulty here, namely that one and the same
24
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
sacred text can be interpreted in quite different ways, and used to support contradictory
approaches. The question of how religious teaching is linked to ethics is therefore a
complex one, and the issue of environmental ethics provides a good context within which
to explore this.
Rights and responsibilities
The theory of rights and responsibilities is relevant here too. We accept that human beings
have rights – and most would accept that animals do too. The basis for this is that they are
capable of suffering, in other words – being harmed. We assign rights to individuals as a
safeguard against harm. This is why, for example, most civilised nations recognise that it is
wrong to torture people – even if, from a utilitarian standpoint, there might be beneficial
consequences.
It might seem that the theory of rights and responsibilities applies straightforwardly to
development: we have a responsibility not only to reduce waste, and to conserve precious
natural capital, but also to do good through individual actions and by setting up systems
that are beneficial. We might enquire into the basis of this. It makes sense to talk about
‘harm’ when considering the interests of conscious creatures, but you cannot ‘harm’ a
rock, or a river, or a landscape, since these things are not capable of suffering. You could
of course damage them – but what makes damaging something wrong? Someone whose
interests were served by the damage might argue that they have a right to do as they
please. What exactly is wrong with this argument? Some people would say that the
environment itself has rights, whilst others think that the harm would be found when the
consequences for conscious creatures are brought into the picture.
Virtue theory
A final approach to developmental ethics is provided by virtue theory. The focus of virtue
theory is not on actions, but on actors. In fact, virtue theorists prefer not to give an answer
to the question, ‘what makes a certain course of action right or wrong?’ They emphasise
instead the importance of becoming a particular sort of person – a person with virtues.
Virtues are attractive personal characteristics, such as integrity, honesty, compassion and
wisdom. The virtue theorist will emphasise that finding the right course of action is
complicated, and that the process is not usually reducible to a simple formula. But virtuous
people will judge well, and we should aim to emulate people like this. This theory has an
indirect application to the question about environmental ethics. We generally admire
people who do not squander the world’s natural capital, who try to live in ways which show
respect for the natural world, and whose actions are beneficial. So there is a basis here for
talking about the virtues of being environmentally friendly. Critics of virtue theory will,
however, point out that it does not really help provide us with an answer of what we should
do in particular cases. Also, there is a problem with identifying who the virtuous people
are. Historically, the idea of virtue has shifted considerably. So it is not obvious that the
idea of emulating virtuous people provides us with an answer to the question of how we
ought to live. How much of a weakness this is depends on whether you think ethics should
provide such a set of rules.
25
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Activity DH3.1
Doing wrong
Most people would agree that polluting a river with toxic factory waste is wrong, and a bad thing to do. But
why is it bad? Use each of the four ethical frameworks, in turn, to write down reasons explaining why such an
action is wrong.
Activity DH3.2
Ethical living
In the media, the terms ‘ethical’ and ‘ethical living’ are often used when discussing issues that might broadly
be termed ‘developmental’ (or perhaps ‘environmental’) – such as whether we should switch to low-energy
light bulbs, or eat organically grown food, or whether holiday companies should organise tours of Antarctica.
Make a collection of articles from newspapers and magazines that use ‘ethical’ in this sense. Then choose a
couple of examples and comment on the extent to which the questions being discussed are ‘ethical’; use the
four ethical frameworks for guidance.
References for Activity DH3.2
Ethical Living magazine:
http://www.ethical-living.org/Site/Welcome.html
The Co-operative magazine:
http://www.co-operative.coop/magazine/ethical-living/
The weekly ‘ethical living’ feature in the Observer magazine, and the associated blog:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/ethical-living
Groups and individuals
How can we explain the following? Good people who try to do the
right thing and behave well to those around them can get caught up
in events that they know are wrong, or simply fail to act when the
overall benefits are obvious.
For example in the 1980s in Sri Lanka, terrible atrocities were being
committed in the conflict between the Tamils and the Sinhalese.
During a succession of anti-Tamil riots many individual Sinhalese
sheltered Tamils often at great risk to their families. Yet there was
no public outcry or outraged, mass protest.
Project hint
An exploration of the
relationship between
collective and
individual ethics could
make an interesting
Dissertation project.
See Part DD, Section
DD1.2 of these
materials for some
further advice and
suggestions.
Similarly the Research Institute for Military History, Potsdam,
Germany (2009) acknowledges that Nazism cannot be blamed only on a fiendish minority:
it was the result of a fundamental aberration on the part of large sections of society.
Activity DH3.3
Groups and individuals
In a small group, suggest other examples of ‘a fundamental aberration on the part of large sections of
society’. Then suggest possible reasons why large numbers of people turn a blind eye and let bad things
happen. Is creating massive amounts of waste such an example? Everyone knows it is wrong, so why do we
allow it?
26
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Do you think it is helpful to draw a distinction between personal ethics and group ethics? Write a few
sentences putting forward your own point of view then discuss your views in a small group.
DH3.2-3.3
Naturally good?
Natural goodness
A common feature of thinking about development, particularly about environmental issues,
is that people use the word 'natural' to mean 'good'. For example, advertisers often stress
that their products ‘use only natural ingredients’. And it is sometimes suggested that we
would do better if we operated in the ways we observe in the natural world. Take this
example from the Ellen MacArthur Foundation’s statement of founding principles:
The closed loop model is a biomimetic (life-imitating) approach, a school of
thought that takes nature as an example and considers that our systems should
work like organisms, processing nutrients that can be fed back into the cycle –
hence the ‘closed loop’ or ‘regenerative’ terms usually associated with it.
http://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/about/circular-economy/part-ii-the-circularmodels-founding-principles
In this argument, the assumption is being made that the models we
find in nature are good ones for us to adopt. Is this a valid
assumption? Arguably not, because there are some natural
processes which are good (for instance, natural processes by which
wounds heal) and some which are not. The polio virus is natural, but
its effect on humans is not good. Natural remedies – such as using
comfrey to help wounds heal – may work, but whether they do so is
not determined just by the fact that they are natural.
Project hint
In a project that draws
on circular economy
principles, it could be
interesting to explore
the meaning of
‘nature’ in the context
of the project
question.
So it seems as though we have to re-think the original argument. Perhaps the point is not
to assume that whatever is natural is good, but rather, to draw inspiration from natural
systems for new ways of thinking, which can then be evaluated in terms of their potentially
beneficial consequences. So, having looked at how effectively nature deals with waste, we
might begin to think of new ways in which we could design waste out of our economic
system (move from a linear towards a circular economy). We do, as a matter of fact, value
processes which produce less waste – this gives us a reason to look widely for examples
of effective systems, and this can of course include looking closely at how natural systems
work effectively.
Activity DH3.4
Natural goodness
Discuss the link between the concepts of goodness and naturalness. Try to think of examples of good things
which are not natural, and natural things which aren’t good. Why do you think people often connect these
two ideas? What does it mean to say that something is ‘natural’?
27
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Why should we care?
Most people would agree that it is important that we should care for the environment. We
have a duty to show respect for the natural world. But why? Broadly speaking, there are
two different answers you could give to this question. One is to say that the natural world
has value in itself: that it is intrinsically deserving of respect. The other answer is that the
environment has derived, or instrumental value: it is valuable because conscious beings
such as ourselves value it. We may value it for its utility – because, for instance, we can
derive food or medicines from nature. Or we may value it for its sheer beauty. Either way,
we regard the natural world as something valuable because it is valuable to us, or to other
conscious creatures.
The difference between these viewpoints can be seen in the following thought experiment.
You have probably heard the question, ‘if a tree falls over in the forest, and there is no-one
around to hear it, does it make a sound?’ Well, imagine this variation on that question:
suppose that the tree is struck by lightning and dies, but there is no-one around to see it.
In fact, suppose that the tree exists in a world which is entirely devoid of any conscious
creatures at all. Is it a bad thing if lightning strikes the tree? Someone who believes that
nature has intrinsic value – that nature has value on its own, regardless of how we view it
– might say that it is a bad thing; something valuable has just died, and that constitutes a
loss, even if no-one knows about it. Alternatively, they might say it’s a good thing, as the
fallen tree rots down and provides nutrients for new growth; natural events such as
lightning strikes are all part of the way the ecosystem operates. Someone who thinks,
however, that the tree is not valuable-in-itself, but is only valuable because conscious
beings value it, will say that, in this case, there is no loss of value, since no conscious
creatures were in any way affected by the death of the tree.
In 2011, the UK Government published the ‘National Ecosystem Assessment’ report:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-13627055
This report attempted to put a cash value on the benefits people gain from the
environment. The Secretary of State for the Environment commented that the report
demonstrated that it is possible to put a value on, for example, the millions of day visits
that people make to woodlands and forests, which are worth £1.2 billion to the economy.
The report was welcomed by some environmentalists as a demonstration of the economic
importance of caring for the natural world. However, it could be argued that the report rests
on a problematic philosophical assumption, namely that the right way to assess the value
of nature is in economic terms. There are three arguments which might be given against
this assumption. One is that it makes no sense. A walk in the woods is not something
which can have a price put on it. The good things that result from such an activity are
subjective and cannot be ‘cashed out’ in financial terms. Secondly, even if a value could
be assigned, it might be felt that the whole approach of turning other forms of value into
financial values is mistaken; that to assign a cash value reduces or cheapens the value we
should assign to nature. Suppose that a teacher decided to cancel the school trip to the
woods and pay the students a cash sum equivalent in value, as calculated by economists.
It seems, here, that the students have missed out, and that the money isn’t really a
28
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
substitute for the experience they have missed. Thirdly, it frames the question as though
humans are not themselves part of nature. Is this appropriate?
Activity DH3.5
Natural values
Discuss the example of the tree that falls over in a world without any conscious creatures. Do you think that
this would be a bad thing?
If you think that nature has intrinsic value, can you explain why? What makes it valuable?
Does the value of a natural system depend on the value that humans derive from it? If so, is this based on
what we can get out of it in terms of materials and energy? Do we value nature as a teacher? If you think that
nature is only valuable because of its value to conscious creatures, why do you think this is the case? What
interest do conscious creatures have in the natural world?
What is it that we value about nature? Is it simply that it is useful to us? Or does it have other forms of value?
Many would agree that the circular economy principle of trying to design systems that build up (rather than
deplete) natural and social capital is a good thing. But why?
What would we lose if much of our natural environment was destroyed, or replaced with an artificial
environment? Why do town planners take care to include parks in cities? Why do so many people appreciate
having gardens?
Care for the future
The view that the natural world has instrumental value (value derived from the way that
conscious creatures view it) might seem to support the view that we
Project hint
can ‘do what we want’ with it. After all, if nature is valuable because
The relationship
of its value to us, doesn’t this mean that we can simply use it in
between humans and
ways which give us as much of what we want? But this does not
the rest of nature
raises many questions
follow. One way of seeing this is to think about the fact that there
that could be explored
will, we hope, be many future generations of humans, and other
conscious creatures. They too will find pleasure and value in nature. through a Dissertation
project. See Section
DD2 of these
materials for some
examples and
suggestions.
So some – perhaps much – of the value of nature derives from the
value that they will place on it. Therefore we cannot argue that we
can do as we please with nature – for if we show no regard for the
natural capital it contains, and simply waste it, we will have deprived
future generations of something which they would have found valuable. This argument
suggests that there is a strong reason for being concerned about not wasting valuable
natural capital, even if the value of this capital is purely instrumental.
However, plausible though this argument is, it does rely on assumptions. It assumes, for a
start, that there will be future generations, and that they will find the natural world valuable.
It also assumes that this fact should affect the way we act now. Someone might ask: why
should I care about the needs and interests of future generations? After all, the future is
not real. These future generations of people do not currently exist. So how can their needs
and interests exercise any hold over us? Can people who don’t exist now still have
interests that matter now? Why should I care about people who do not yet exist?
We might think that this is just a selfish, short-sighted view. Imagine if people in the past
had thought like that! If our ancestors had shown no thought for those who would have
29
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
come after, we could reasonably blame them for being inconsiderate. But there is
something puzzling about the fact that we feel we ought to care for future generations,
since it means that we have obligations towards people who do not (now) exist.
Activity DH3.6
Present and future
Do you think that we should care about future generations? Should we consider their interests as much as
our own? If not, how much weight should we give to their interests? What happens if there is a conflict
between the interests of real, living people, and the interests of future people who do not yet exist? How
much can people reasonably be expected to change the way they behave, in order to ensure that natural
capital is still available for the benefit of future people?
Minding your language
The way language is used is particularly important to philosophers. A distinction is
sometimes made between uses of words to state facts and uses of words to express
values. For example, ‘squares have four sides’ is a statement of fact. But a statement such
as ‘the Mona Lisa is a beautiful picture’ expresses a value: it says something about how
someone feels about this particular object. In everyday life, of course, we tend to use
words which both describe and express values at the same time. If a student says, ‘that
was a really boring lesson’, then they are describing something about the lesson (namely,
the fact that it bored them), but at the same time, expressing something about how they
feel: they are making a value-judgement. Someone else might disagree; for them, the
lesson may not have been boring at all.
It is important to be aware of the linguistic difference between statements of fact and
expressions of value because, often, language can be used in a way which carries implicit
values. Take, for example, the statement, ‘we are producing enormous quantities of waste
food each year’. This could be treated as a neutral statement of fact. It could simply mean:
a lot of food does not get used. But the word ‘waste’ carries negative overtones; it is an
expressive, value-laden term. We associate waste with something bad. The implication of
the statement that we are producing a lot of waste food is that we are doing something
wrong. This might or might not be true – whether it is true needs to be thought about. The
mere fact that a quantity of food is not used is not in itself good or bad. So there are extra
assumptions which enter when the unused food is described as ‘waste’. Becoming aware
of this is a first step towards thinking critically about whether you agree with those
assumptions.
Activity DH3.7
Words and values
Use a dictionary to find definitions of these words: ‘nature’, ‘natural world’,
‘biosphere’, ‘living system’. Do they all mean the same thing? Write a few
sentences to clarify any distinctions between them.
Think about these words: ‘sustainable’, ‘eco-friendly’, ‘efficient’, ‘polluting’, ‘green’,
re-usable’, ‘waste’, ‘restorative’, eco-effective’.
What values do you associate with these words? Do you think they indicate
Project hint
In any project, careful
use of language, and
reflection on the
meanings of the terms
you use and the
values that they imply,
can enhance the
quality of the project
work.
30
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
positive or negative qualities? Could they be used in positive and negative ways, in different situations? If
they could be used in both positive and negative ways, what is it that determines whether the use is positive
or negative?
For further details see:
‘Conceptualizing the environment’ in Making Sense: philosophy behind the headlines, J
Baggini, OUP, 2002
See The ethics of systems thinking, available on the Ellen MacArthur Foundation website.
31
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
DH4
Development and economics
DH4.1
Money
Money and debt
A great deal of discussion about the economy focuses on the taking and the making and
consuming, on the using and inputs of energy and the flow of materials. However, there
are other essentials and one of them is money. Someone once said that we are about as
aware of money as a fish is of water – it just surrounds us. We tend not to think about what
money is, where it comes from and what it does – or for that matter why it matters (other
than the struggle to earn some of course). But if we look back a few years the world’s
banking system nearly destroyed itself and governments across the world scrambled to try
and save it.
Bernard Lietaer (economist and author of The Future of Money) wrote:
The 4 trillion US dollars committed by November 2008 is about a trillion dollars
($979 billion dollars) greater than the entire cost of World War II borne by the
United States. In short, governments, the world over, have just bled themselves
dry to a totally unprecedented extent, just to save the banking system.
In fact, it is worse than this. According to Olivier Garret (CEO of Casey Research) the true
cost of the American bailout was more like $8.5 trillion.
The value of the world’s financial sector is between 7 and 10 times the value of the real
economy; no one knows for sure. This means there are not enough goods and services,
resources and energy to match the claims in the financial system based on these real
assets. The financial system has been compared to a large hot air balloon dragging with it
the basket which is the people and the products and those services which make up the
‘real’ economy. If the balloon deflated suddenly, we’d crash, figuratively and literally: there
would be no banks, no money to pay wages, and no savings. Hence the bailout.
Banks
Money is supposed to be just a medium of exchange, mere tokens or in these days,
numbers, which represent transactions in the real economy. In a crude way money equals
stuff. However, money is almost all created out of nothing as debt. In the UK, 97 percent of
money is debt, most of the rest is cash. The private banks create money when they make
loans. Most people think banks just lend what their depositors leave on account with them
but this is not so. As the economist Herman Daly puts it, banks are “able to live the
alchemist’s dream of creating money out of nothing and lending it at interest”. See
http://steadystate.org/money-and-the-steady-state-economy/
Since the money is created for the principal (the loan) but not the money to pay the
interest then the economy has to produce more to create the wealth which enables more
loans to be made. Debt requires that the economy grow just to service debt. The payment
of interest drives the economy hard, unrelentingly so, pushing the exploitation of resources
and labour. It is important, therefore, that costs fall (through efficiency, usually meaning
32
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
fewer workers per unit of output). As noted, the growing economy in turn requires more
money and so more debt to be created. This is a positive feedback cycle which periodically
runs out of control leading to boom and bust (see Activities DH1.5 and DH1.6). It seems
we have a choice between keeping the financial hot air balloon in the air and consuming
resources, damaging the environment and fragmenting society in the urgency of it, or
crashing the balloon and with it the economy and leaving communities to their own meagre
resources and the environment under pressure from poverty and want. 2008 showed what
world leaders chose. Neither makes a lot of sense in the long run.
Public utility?
There could be another choice. In short, money need not be created as debt by private
banks and private benefit and the amount of money could be kept in balance with the
output of the economy. It would be supplied by the government as a public utility. Banks,
now no longer able to create money through creating loans, would lend only what money
has been saved. In terms of the balloon metaphor the balloon should balance the basket
so that it floats and neither falls nor rises very much.
Interest is also interesting. Why should just holding money be rewarded? Unless the
money is invested productively in say buying a bakery or something which produced more
real wealth, holding money means it is not acting as a medium of exchange and not doing
its main job. To make sure that the flow is kept going, the idea of interest for merely
holding money would be replaced by a maintenance charge. Impossible? These seemingly
strange ideas all have a very long intellectual history. Indeed, it happened in August 2011
when the Bank of New York Mellon Corp announced it would charge its clients 0.13
percent for holding deposits of more than $50 million. See:
http://www.npr.org/blogs/money/2011/08/04/138994595/bank-will-charge-a-fee-to-holdcustomers-money
and
http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/08/04/national/main20088321.shtml
Activity DH4.1
Negative interest
Watch the video on Silvia Gesell’s theory of negative interest, or charging to hold money, and how it worked
in practice.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?gl=GB&v=W9dttjObGrQ
Could this ever work here? If not, why not?
The choice about how money is created and whether interest can be charged is one which
in real life has been the cause of war, has exercised the minds of no fewer than five US
presidents, driven an influential social movement in the 20th century, and reaches way
back to the great religions which, with rare unanimity, prohibited usury (lending money at
interest).
Activity DH4.2
Usury
Investigate the teachings on usury among the major faiths. Choose one major faith, and work in a small
group to make a presentation to the rest of your class.
33
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
DH4.2
Markets
Prices
Project hint
In a project that looks
at factors affecting
people’s behaviour, a
discussion of markets
and prices could be
relevant. For example
see Part DN2 Section
2.2 ‘Recycling’.
Prices are messages. That’s the first thing most businesses
recognise. It helps in deciding whether to produce, trade, offer
services, sell or hold, invest or leave the market. The price to the
buyer is also a rather complex message which is assumed to give a
sense of what something is worth, and to allow supposedly rational
choices to be made. It is complex because there are values
embedded. An example would be an expensive perfume or hi-fi. It
may be expensive because it is expected to be, and to have it cheaply would reflect badly
on the status of the buyer. Prices can then be social messages “Look…I can afford this…”
So, prices are complex messages but it is widely assumed that resources are allocated
efficiently when a market allows many buyers and sellers to negotiate freely and to enter
and leave the market freely, and everyone has access to the same information. Figure 8
shows how supply and demand are interrelated in a free market. ‘Cheaper’ brings out
more effective demand and ‘more expensive’ brings out more production. The intersection
marks the spot when the market clears and where everyone is happy; it is the market
price. However, a free market does not happen very often because the conditions which
make it work are often partially or wholly missing.
Figure 8: Supply, demand and market price in a free market.
What if prices are incomplete messages? If the full costs, the real costs of the extraction,
production and disposal of waste and its impact on workers are not accounted for as part
of the market price because they have been borne by the environment and society at large
then rational decisions cannot be made. These are the externalities, those costs not paid
for by the seller or, often, the buyer. But the question might be: external to what, exactly,
on a fully connected planet? Where is ‘away’?
34
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Activity DH4.3
Externalities
Discuss the externalities – the things that are not factored into the price – when you buy and burn a litre of
petrol or diesel. To what extent should these be included in the price? What are your reasons for coming to
this conclusion?
Taxes and subsidies
In practice, many vital resources not only fail to be fully costed but they are pushed below
even partial ‘market’ prices by being actively subsidised by governments across the globe.
A study by Prof Myers at the turn of the millennium found that subsidies which
accelerated the unsustainable exploitation of resources in just the five key areas of fossil
fuels, agriculture, fishing, forestry and water were worth nearly US$2 trillion per year.
Myers compared these ‘perverse subsidies’ (note the value-laden term) to other costs:

They are almost three times as large as global military spending per year

They are larger than the annual sales of the 20 largest corporations

They are four times as much as the annual cash incomes of the 1.3 billion poorest
people

They are five times as much as the international narcotics industry

They are half again as large as the global fossil-fuels industry or the global insurance
industry.
For an updated account of this work, see:
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Perverse_subsidies
Taxes are the other side of government subsidies, ways of making prices higher than they
would normally be. Employ a worker and you have tax and national insurance to pay as
well as the take-home pay; buy a machine instead and you can get a tax break. A
government wishing to move towards a circular economy might shift the tax burden from
what it values (such as people having jobs) to those things which it considers less
desirable, such as waste, and raw material extraction (compared to recovering materials)
or fossil fuel burning. Without such changes to the market, a shift to a circular economy
might be really hard to do no matter what the clever designers, engineers and materials
scientists achieve.
Activity DH4.4
Perverse subsidies
It might be argued that all subsidies are ‘perverse’ because they interfere with the
free market and lead to lower prices that in turn lead to exploitation of resources.
Do you agree with this point of view?
Research some examples of subsidies and their effects. Take part in a debate on
the motion that ‘all subsidies are perverse’.
Project hint
An exploration of what
might be involved in
introducing a circular
economy could make
an interesting project.
See Section DD2
‘Dissertation Project
Starters’.
35
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
DH4.3
World views
Economy and ecology
A central element of circular economy thinking is that a functioning, regenerative, selfrepairing planet is the ever evolving sum of its systems and that humans must recognise
this and then fit within these connections. The ecological crisis might thus be called the
erosion of the fabric of life. It’s not just that the resources are short or pollution widespread
or the number of species on Earth are in decline; it is the connections between physical,
biological and social (human) systems which sustain life itself which are at the heart of this
crisis.
We need to recognise that most species that have ever lived on Earth are long gone.
Humans are perhaps unique in having more choices, so we can perhaps influence the
survival of our species.Our choices seem to be related to our worldviews. There is a
contrast between those who see the ‘how the world works’ as a sort of metabolism, in
which we are embedded as part of the system (the circular economy perspective), and
those who see it as machine to understand, predict and control (the linear economy
perspective).
Linear economy
From a circular economy perspective, there is a crisis resulting from of the kind of
economics we have now. In this linear economy, resources are exploited, whether this is
the mining of metals, the clearing of forests for agriculture or timber or the depletion of fish
stocks. Then, not forgetting the use of labour (workers) and organisation, goods are made
or food processed and then sold. The consumer then disposes of the waste. Indeed, every
stage of the process has a lot of waste. The faster this process can be made to run, then
the more wealth can accumulate, some of which is reinvested in accelerating the takemake-dispose still further. Some of this wealth can be spent cleaning up the environment
and for health care, benefits and pensions.
The key to linear economic growth is cheap and available energy, and money to borrow. It
is often called capitalism but the word has many connotations. It is commonly understood
as focused on accumulating only some sorts of assets by reducing the value of other
capitals. The main ones which are worn down or depleted are called natural capitals
[environmental or ecological – what the Earth provides at no cost] and social capitals [what
communities do for each other without payment in money]. This conventional way of
seeing economics also means avoiding paying the full cost of resources and waste, since
what matters is what is in the market and has a price and can be subject to competition,
supply and demand. The rest is ‘externalised’.
Activity DH4.5
Capital
According to Forum for the Future there are five types of capital:
http://www.forumforthefuture.org/sites/default/files/project/downloads/five-capitals-model.pdf
Visit the website and make brief notes on each of the five types. For each, write a short definition that
distinguishes it from the other four.
36
EPQ Development Resource Materials: Hub
Student Guide
Circular economy
Project hint
The vision of the circular economy is that, instead of a linear
Renewable energy is
‘machine’ for taking-making-and-disposing and building money
a topic that can
wealth, we have a system which is assumed to be more like a living
fruitfully be explored
system, full of feedback, where waste is food, where energy is
in an Investigation
increasingly based on harvesting renewables not depleting fossil
project. See Section
DN2.1 ‘Energy’ for
resources and where wealth means increasing or replenishing all
some suggestions.
the capitals – soil quality, fisheries, the opportunities for
communities to thrive by sharing outside and inside the market – as
well as financial or money-denominated capital. That would be a different form of
capitalism, based on optimising all the flows. Sometimes it is described as a ‘lake
economy’ rather than a ‘river economy’. The lake is the stock of capital and water can flow
in and out so long as the lake remains at about the same level in the longer term. A river
economy is just draining the lake. The regenerative or restorative economy is one where a
partially drained ‘lake’ can be refilled- where capital rebuilds.
The linear, or river, economy driven by the need to meet interest on debt demands
throughput, which uses energy intensively in mining and original manufacture, demands
global scale and mass consumption to go with mass production and finally mass disposal
(paid by the public purse directly or in health or social costs). It counts the cost of only
some of the inputs and outputs. It resembles a spiral, or Catherine wheel.
A circular or lake economy might be an endless flow, using energy less intensively in
refurbishing and repair and working well on a regional level as it stresses use not
consumption. It eliminates waste. Prices are messages and they increasingly tell the truth
because costs are now internalised, they have become real to business since business
keeps a hold of the product or recovers it. Fuel would less likely to be used in a profligate
way as prices rise. A money supply based on ever increasing debt would no longer be
functional; there is not the increase in output to repay the principal plus interest as growth
measures change. It becomes as much qualitative (rise of wellbeing) as about output .
Money would be primarily a medium of exchange maintained to match level of overall
output. Only money on deposit could be lent at interest.
Activity DH4.6
Linear vs circular
Review what you have read in Parts DH1-4 of these materials, and elsewhere, about the circular and linear
economy models. Working with a partner or in a small group, make a poster summarising and comparing the
key features of the two models. Consider how the ideas might be communicated effectively. (Lists of bullet
points? Talking heads? Graphic images?) Put your poster on display and discuss its messages with other
students.
Activity DH4.7
Circular economy: a realistic goal?
Discuss with other students whether you think a circular economy is achievable in practice. Think beyond
whether it would simply be ‘nicer’ to live in a circular economy: try to think of changes that could realistically
be made to our current systems, and try to identify changes that, in practice, would be difficult or impossible.
37