Chapter 4:
Early Societies in South Asia
Themes:
As in the previous two chapters, this chapter focuses on both the development of early complex
societies in south Asia (India) and the effects of the migrations of the nomadic peoples, in this case
the Indo-European Aryans, on the subcontinent’s peoples. As in chapter 3, the most efficient way
to cover this information would be (1) to continue the comparisons between early complex societies
(the Mesopotamian river valley societies, the Nile river valley societies, and the Indus river valley
societies) and then (2) to continue the comparisons of the roles and influences of migrating nomads.
Unlike Mesopotamian and Egyptian societies, historians have little detailed evidence of
Harappan societies. Much potential evidence is under water and we have been unable to translate
their script. That being said, the main lecture/discussion topic should be the comparison
(similarities and differences) of south Asian peoples’ (the Dravidians’) development of agriculture,
probably learned from the Mesopotamians, and then early complex societies and their institutions.
Note that Harappan cities were quite a bit larger, and their domestic technologies (running water
and sewage systems) were very sophisticated.
As Harappan societies declined (for reasons historians don’t know) Indo-European Aryans
moved southward into the subcontinent bringing horses and cattle and slowly adapting to the local
Dravidian agricultural economy. This period between 1500-500 B.C.E. is called the Vedic period,
and is identified as the crucial period of the intermixing of Dravidian and Aryan cultures that
produced the foundation of modern “Indian” social classes (the caste system and patriarchy);
political structures (in the form of smaller-scale regional kingdoms); religious ideas (early Aryan texts
that later become the crucial in Hinduism); and cultural imports (the Sanskrit language).1
Chapter 4 Reading Questions:
1. Why is so little known about the Harappan society? What is it that we do know about
the nature of that society? Because the earliest Harappan remains are below the water
table, archaeologists can’t research them. Also the Harappans used an elaborate pictographic
system that has not yet been able to be deciphered. We do however, that it had city walls, a
fortified citadel, and a large granary-Harappa and Mohenjo-daro represented an investment
of human labor and established patterns to shape the larger society. They had a high degree
of standardization due to the Indus River which facilitated trade and communication.
Mohenjo-daro had a very sophisticated water/sewage program. Harappans had deities
associated with creation and procrastination.
2. How do historians and archeologists explain the decline of the Harappan culture?
Ecological degradation-Harappans deforested Indus River Valley leading to erosion of top
soil and a reduced amount of rainfall. This meant agriculture was only possible with artificial
irrigation which reduced the production amount. Natural catastrophes may have also
affected ancient Harappan societies.
For comments on the deterioration of women’s status upon the Aryan takeover, see S. and B. Hughes’ pamphlet Women in
Ancient Civilizations as part of the AHA’s Essays on Global and Comparative History, 21-4.
1
3. How were the Indo-European migrants different from the cultures that already
existed in India? The early Ayrans didn’t really practice agriculture but instead were a
pastoral economy meaning they kept sheep, goats, horses, and cattle. They composed songs,
orally transmitted works were the Vedas, which clash with people already in India. They
formed hundreds of chiefdoms that were organized around herding communities and
agricultural villages.
4. Trace the origins of the caste system, making sure to include a discussion of varna
and jati. Caste developed gradually as Aryans established settlements all throughout India
with a growing social complexity. They had to refine social distinctions. After 1000 BCE,
Aryans recognized four main varnas: priests (Brahmins), warriors and aristocrats (kshatriyas),
cultivators, artisans, and merchants (vaishyas), and landless peasants and serfs (shudras).
Untouchables were added later. As the vedic society became more complex and generated
more specialized occupations, the caste system served as an umbrella for a complicated
hierarchy of subcastes, jati. An occupation often determined one’s jati.
5. Discuss the nature of patriarchy in early Indian societies. What is the Lawbook of
Manu and how does it relate to gender roles? Only males could inherit property, preside
over family rituals that honored departed ancestors,, formal education in Sanskrit was almost
exclusively male, and women rarely learned the Vedas. The patriarchal spokesmen of vedic
society sought to place women explicitly under the authority of men. Lawbook of Manu
told men to treat women with honor and respect but insisted that women remain subject to
the guidance of the principal men in their lives and that their most important duties were to
bear children and maintain wholesome homes for their family.
6. What are the Vedas and what do they teach us about early Indian societies? Vedas are
orally transmitted works, collections of hymns, songs, prayers, and rituals honoring the
various gods of the Aryans. It is clear from the Vedas that competition over land and
resources fueled conflict between Aryan and Dravidian people. The superiority of Indra
reflects the instability and turbulence of early vedic society. Aryan religion did not neglect
ethics.
7. What are the fundamental religious teachings of the Upanishads? Samsara doctrine
said that upon death souls temporarily go to the World of Fathers and return to earth in a
new form. The doctrine of Karma accounted for incarnations souls experienced. Moksha
was a deep sleep with permanent liberation from physical incarnation. Two means to achieve
goal were asceticism (simple lives and denying selves from pleasure) and meditation
(concentrate on Brahman and merge souls for eternal, peaceful ecstasy).
8. How did the religious beliefs as expressed in the Upanishads dovetail with the social
order during the Vedic age? The social caste you were born into depended on your karma.
Ones with bad karma were born into lower castes whereas ones with higher karma were
born into higher castes.
9. In what ways did the religion of the Upanishads include an ethical system? They
called for the observance of high ethical standards. They discouraged greed, envy, gluttony,
and all manner of vice. They advocated honesty, self-control, charity, and mercy. Most
importantly they encouraged the cultivation of personal integrity.
10. How did the Dravidian and Aryan cultures blend during this period? The Dravidians
believed in the Upanishads. The Upanishads appeared late in the Vedic Age and had
doctrines, karma and samsara, that reinforced the Vedic social order which was present in
Aryan culture. The doctrines explained why individuals were born into their class. The
Aryans did not neglect ethics in their culture, and the Upanishads call for observance of high
ethical standards.
kit
Historical Terms and Concepts to Know
*Who, what, where, why, when, how, so what?
Aryans
Harappans
semi-precious stones
sewage systems
ecological degradation
Vedas, Rig Veda, Vedic Age
republic
administrators
varna
caste
jati
brahmins
social mobility
sati (suttee)
ritual sacrifices
Dravidians
Upanishads
Brahman
samsara
karma
moksha
ascetic, asceticism