THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
SARATZIS THANASSIS
PART 1
INTRODUCTION
The endocrine system is a collection of ductless glands that secrete chemical
messages, known as hormones.
The role of the endocrine system is to maintain homeostasis and long-term
control of the human body using chemical signals (the hormones). Also, the
endocrine system works in parallel with the nervous system to control growth and
maturation along with body homeostasis.
The hormones produced by the glands of the endocrine system are passed
through the blood circulation to arrive at a target organ, which possesses a series
of cells that bear an appropriate hormone receptor. This receptor binds with the
hormone molecule and triggers a series of chemical reactions inside the cell.
As mentioned before, the endocrine system is constituted by the endocrine
glands – which secrete hormones.
The major human endocrine glands include:






the hypothalamus
the pituitary gland
the thyroid gland
the pancreas
the adrenal glands
the gonads or sex organs
Gonads
The endocrine system in females and males
HORMONES
A hormone is a messenger molecule synthesized and secreted by a group of
specialized cells that constitute an endocrine gland. These glands are ductless,
which means that their secretions (hormones) are released directly into the
bloodstream and travel elsewhere in the body to target organs, upon which they
act. Note that this is in contrast to the exocrine glands, which have ducts for
releasing the substances that they produce. Exocrine glands (not part of the
endocrine system) secrete products that are passed outside the body. Sweat
glands and salivary glands are examples of exocrine glands.
There are three general groups of hormones. These are classified as follows –
according to their chemical structure:

Steroid hormones including prostaglandins which function especially in
a variety of female functions and the sex hormones all of which are lipids
made from cholesterol.


Amino acid derivatives (like epinephrine) which are derived from amino
acids, especially tyrosine.
Peptide hormones (like insulin) which are the most numerous/diverse
group of hormones.
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
Hormones trigger actions in specific target cells, after binding to an appropriate
receptor. Receptors are membrane proteins that bind to hormones. A certain
hormone receptor located on a specific target cell can only bind to one type of
hormone. More than fifty human hormones have been identified; all act by
binding to receptor molecules. The binding hormone causes a change in the
shape of the receptor. This alteration of the receptor’s molecule causes the cell
to respond to the hormone.
There are two different mechanisms of hormone action on all target cells:
Steroid and non – steroid hormones

Nonsteroid Hormones
Nonsteroid hormones (water soluble) do not enter the cell but bind to plasma
membrane receptors, generating a chemical signal (second messenger) inside
the target cell. Five different second messenger chemicals, including cyclic AMP
have been identified. Second messengers activate other intracellular chemicals
to produce the target cell response.
The action of
nonsteroid
hormones
Images from:
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee

Steroid Hormones
The second mechanism involves steroid hormones, which pass through the
plasma membrane and act in a two step process. Steroid hormones bind, once
inside the cell, to the nuclear membrane receptors, producing an activated
hormone-receptor complex. The activated hormone-receptor complex binds to
DNA and activates specific genes, increasing production of proteins.
The action of
nonsteroid
hormones
Images from:
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee
Maintenance of the hormones homeostasis in the blood
When hormone levels reach a certain normal or necessary amount, further
secretion is controlled by important body mechanisms to maintain that level of
hormone in the blood. This regulation of hormone secretion may involve the
hormone itself or another substance in the blood related to the hormone. For
example, if the thyroid gland has secreted adequate amounts of thyroid
hormones (such as thyroxin) into the blood, the pituitary gland senses the normal
levels of thyroid hormone in the bloodstream and gears down its release of
thyrotropin, the pituitary hormone that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce
thyroid hormones. Parathyroid hormone increases the level of calcium in the
blood. When the blood calcium level rises, the parathyroid glands sense the
change and decrease their secretion of parathyroid hormone. This turn-off
process is called "negative feedback" system.
Negative feedback in the thyroxin release reflex
Image from:
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee
GLANDS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1. HYPOTHALAMUS – PITUITARY GLAND
The pituitary gland (often called the master gland) is located in a bony cavity at
the base of the brain. A stalk links the pituitary to the hypothalamus, which
controls release of pituitary hormones. The pituitary gland has two lobes: the
anterior and posterior lobes. The anterior pituitary is glandular.
The hypothalamus contains neurons that control the releases from the anterior
pituitary, through seven hypothalamic hormones which are released into a portal
system connecting the hypothalamus and pituitary. These hormones cause
targets in the pituitary to release various hormones.
Anterior Pituitary
Hormones produced and released:







Growth hormone
Thyrotropin
Adrenocorticotropin
Leutinizing hormone LH
Follicle stimulating hormone FSH
Prolactin
Endorphins
Posterior Pituitary
Hormones released:



Oxytocin
Vasopressin
Anti – diuretic hormone (ADH)
GONADOTROPINS
Growth hormone (GH) is a peptide anterior pituitary hormone essential for
growth. The hypothalamus maintains homeostatic levels of GH, by the release of
GH-releasing and GH-inhibiting hormones. GH-releasing hormone stimulates
release of GH. GH-inhibiting hormone suppresses the release of GH. Cells under
the action of GH increase in size (hypertrophy) and number (hyperplasia). GH
also causes increase in bone length and thickness by deposition of cartilage at
the ends of bones. During adolescence, sex hormones cause replacement of
cartilage by bone, halting further bone growth even though GH is still present.
Too little or two much GH can cause dwarfism or gigantism, respectively.
Gonadotropins and prolactin are also secreted by the anterior pituitary.
Gonadotropins (which include follicle-stimulating hormone, FSH, and
luteinizing hormone, LH) affect the gonads by stimulating gamete formation
and production of sex hormones. Prolactin is secreted near the end of pregnancy
and prepares the breasts for milk production.
The posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones into the blood. Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) and oxytocin are produced in the hypothalamus and
transported by axons to the posterior pituitary where they are dumped into the
blood. ADH controls water balance in the body and blood pressure. Oxytocin is a
small peptide hormone that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth
Hypothalamus receptors also monitor blood levels of thyroid hormones. Low
blood levels of Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) cause the release of TSHreleasing hormone from the hypothalamus, which in turn causes the release of
TSH from the anterior pituitary. TSH travels to the thyroid where it promotes
production of thyroid hormones, which in turn regulate metabolic rates and body
temperatures.
The
location of the pituitary gland
.
and the hypothalamus
Images from:
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee
2. THYROID GLAND
Location of the thyroid gland
Isthmus
Right
lobe
Left
lobe
Image from: F. Netter Atlas of Anatomy – Ciba Geigy
The thyroid gland is located in the front of the neck, below the larynx. The small,
two-inch gland consists of two lobes, one on each side of the windpipe,
connected by tissue called the isthmus.
The microscopic structure of the thyroid is quite distinctive. Thyroid epithelial
cells - the cells responsible for synthesis of thyroid hormones - are arranged in
spheres called thyroid follicles. Follicles are filled with colloid, a proteinaceous
depot of thyroid hormone precursor. In the low (left) and high-magnification (right)
images of thyroid below, follicles are cut in cross section at different levels,
appearing as roughly circular forms of varying size.
Images from:
http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks
/pathphys/endocrine/thyroid/
In addition to thyroid epithelial cells, the thyroid gland houses one other important
endocrine cell. Nestled in spaces between thyroid follicles are parafollicular or C
cells, which secrete the hormone calcitonin.
Most of the thyroid tissue consists of the follicular cells, which secrete iodinecontaining hormones called thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). The
parafollicular cells secrete the hormone calcitonin. Iodine is essential in order for
the thyroid to produce the hormones.
Thyroid hormones are poorly soluble in water, and more than 99% of the T3 and
T4 circulating in blood is bound to carrier proteins. The principle carrier of thyroid
hormones is thyroxine-binding globulin, a glycoprotein synthesized in the liver.
Two other carriers of import are transthyrein and albumin. Carrier proteins allow
maintenance of a stable pool of thyroid hormones from which the active, free
hormones are released for uptake by target cells.
The thyroid hormones play an important role in regulating the body's metabolism
and calcium balance. The T4 and T3 hormones stimulate every tissue in the
body to produce proteins and increase the amount of oxygen used by cells. The
calcitonin hormone works together with the parathyroid hormone to regulate
calcium levels in the body. Levels of hormones secreted by the thyroid are
controlled by the pituitary gland's thyroid-stimulating hormone, which in turn is
controlled by the hypothalamus.
3. PANCREAS
The pancreas serves two principal functions. Firstly, it acts as a ducted gland,
secreting digestive enzymes into the small intestine. It also serves as a
ductless gland in that the islets of Langerhans secrete insulin and glucagon
to regulate the blood glucose level. The islet cells secrete glucagon, which
causes the liver to catabolise stored carbohydrates in order to raise a low
glucose sugar level. The islet cells also secrete insulin which causes the liver
to take excess glucose out of circulation to lower a high blood glucose level.
Image from:
http://www.howstuffworks.com
Insulin is made and
secreted by the beta
cells of the pancreatic
islets.
Insulin is required by almost all of the body's cells, but its major targets are liver
cells, fat cells and muscle cells. Insulin serves the following actions:




Stimulates liver and muscle cells to store glucose in glycogen
Stimulates fat cells to form fats from fatty acids and glycerol
Stimulates liver and muscle cells to make proteins from amino acids
Inhibits the liver and kidney cells from making glucose from intermediate
compounds of metabolic pathways (gluconeogenesis)
As shown in this diagram,
insulin and glucagon
have an opposite effect
on liver and other tissues
for controlling bloodglucose levels. Together,
they regulate the amount
of glucose that circulates
in the blood.
Image from: http://www.howstuffworks.com/diabetes1.htm
4. ADRENAL GLANDS
The adrenal glands are situated on
top of the kidneys. They consist of
the outer cortex and the inner
medulla. The medulla secretes
epinephrine (also known as
adrenaline) and other similar
hormones in response to stressors Image from: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/htm
such as fright, anger, caffeine, or
low blood sugar. The cortex secretes several classes of steroid hormones
(glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids). Despite their organization into a
single gland, the medulla and cortex are functionally different endocrine
organs, and have different embryological origins.
Cells in the adrenal medulla synthesize and secrete norepinephrine and
epinephrine. Following release into blood, these hormones bind adrenergic
receptors on target cells, where they induce essentially the same effects as direct
sympathetic nervous stimulation.
The adrenal cortex is a factory for steroid hormones. In total, at least two to
three dozen different steroids are synthesized and secreted from this tissue, but
two classes are of particular importance:
Class of Steroid
Major Representative
Physiologic Effects
Mineralocorticoids
Aldosterone
Na+, K+ and water homeostasis
Glucocorticoids
Cortisol
Glucose homeostasis and many others
Additionally, the adrenal cortex produces some sex steroids, particularly
androgens.
Like all steroids, adrenal "corticosteroids" are synthesized from cholesterol.
The adrenal cortex and medulla
Image from: http://a248.e.akamai.net
5. GONADS (SEX ORGANS)
The gonads include the female ovaries and the male testes. In addition to
producing gametes, the female ovaries and male testes also secrete a number
of hormones (sex hormones)
Testes
Male sex hormones, as a group, are
called
androgens.
The
principal
androgen is testosterone, which is
secreted by the testes. A small amount
is also produced by the adrenal cortex.
Production of testosterone begins during
fetal development, continues for a short
time after birth, nearly ceases during
childhood, and then resumes at puberty.
This steroid hormone is responsible for:





The growth and development of the male reproductive structures
Increased skeletal and muscular growth
Enlargement of the larynx accompanied by voice changes
Growth and distribution of body hair
Increased male sexual drive
Testosterone secretion is regulated by a negative feedback system that involves
releasing hormones from the hypothalamus and gonadotropins from the anterior
pituitary.
Ovaries
Two groups of female sex hormones
are produced in the ovaries, the
estrogens and progesterone. These
steroid hormones contribute to the
development and function of the
female reproductive organs and sex
characteristics. At the onset of
puberty, estrogens promotes:



The development of the breasts
Distribution of fat evidenced in the hips, legs, and breast
Maturation of reproductive organs such as the uterus and vagina
Progesterone causes the uterine lining to thicken in preparation for pregnancy.
Together, progesterone and estrogens are responsible for the changes that
occur in the uterus during the female menstrual cycle.
INTERNET LINKS
GENERAL




http://www.martindalecenter.com/Medical1_1_EaGa.html#Endo - general
information on endocrinology
http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit6_3_endo_glnds5_go
nads.html - a tour of the endocrine system
http://www.innerbody.com/image/endoov.html
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookENDOCR.ht
ml
THYROID GLAND





http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/thyroid/ general information and graphics concerning the thyroid gland
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Thyroid.html thyroid hormones and diseases of the thyroid
http://www.endocrineweb.com/thyroid.html - thyroid gland diseases
http://www.bartleby.com/107/272.html - anatomy of the thyroid
http://www.endocrineweb.com/tests.html - common tests to examine
thyroid gland function
PANCREAS




http://www.howstuffworks.com/diabetes1.htm - general information
concerning the pancreas and its main functions
http://w3.uniroma1.it/step/chir/h.html - anatomical views of the pancreas
http://members.aol.com/OhLarry922/home.html - information on pancreas
transplant
http://www.endocrineweb.com/pancreas.html - pancreas hormones
ADRENAL GLANDS

http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/adrenal/ general information and illustrations on the adrenal glands
GONADS

http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit6_3_endo_glnds5_go
nads.html - sex hormones
DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH THE
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
BELLI MARIA
The Endocrine system is very important for living, because its chemical
messengers, hormones, influence the operations of all of the body´ s tissues and
organ systems, controlling the body functions. Hormone levels vary and can be
influenced by environmental or genetic factors. When the endocrine system
doesn’t function properly hormone production is disturbed and a variety of
disorders can arise. Controlling the production of or replacing specific hormones
can treat many hormonal disorders in children and adolescents, some of which
include:
1. Diabetes mellitus (Type 1)
Two main forms of diabetes mellitus are recognized:
Type 1 (or insulin-depended) and type 2 (or non-insulin depended).
Type 1 diabetes mellitus appears at juvenile, when the pancreas fails to produce
enough insulin and is the result of an autoimmune process. The disease has a
high incidence (15.6 cases per 100000 of the under 21 year old population in the
UK annually). Symptoms include hunger, polydipsia, polyuria and loss of weight.
It can cause multiple long-term complications including kidney problems, pain
from nerve damage, blindness and early coronary heart disease and stroke.
Although diabetes mellitus has been recognized for thousands of years, little help
could be offered until the discovery of insulin in 1921, because regular insulin
injections help the patients to control their blood sugar levels and reduce the risk
of developing diabetes complications. It is appreciated that diabetes mellitus is
actually a group of disorders that are heterogeneous, probably comprising
several entities with separate precipitating factors which result in the typical but
not universal, picture of insulitis and beta cell destruction. Major developments in
understanding the immunogenetics at a molecular level reveal a very complex
interaction of loci both within the MHC (major histocompatibility complex) and
outside it. There are genes that play a major role in determining susceptibility or
conferring protection. However, there is a hierarchy, depending on haplotype, for
these effects, which may relate to other loci that are in linkage disequilibrium, like
those regulating TNF (tumor necrosis factor). Much less is known of the influence
of non-MHC genes, although by analogy with experimental diabetes, these may
be critical to the emergence of disease. This is underlined by relatively low
concordance in HLA (human leucocyte antigen)-identical siblings, compared to
monozygotic twins, but in turn, the occurrence of diabetes in only 40% of
subjects with an affected identical twin indicates the importance of environmental
factors. Viruses have some role, most clearly shown in the congenital rubella
syndrome; much further work is required to identify how other viral infections may
contribute to the initiation of disease. T cell cloning is beginning to elucidate the
nature of beta cell-specific T cell autoimmune responses. Several beta cell auto
antigens have been identified, although none has been fully characterized and,
apart from insulin, these are not completely beta cell-specific. Auto antibodies to
the 64 kd antigen seem the most promising marker for diabetes: their pathogenic
importance is uncertain.
The beta cell may contribute to its own destruction by hyper expression of MHC
class 1 and 2 molecules and by synthesis of ICAM-1 (intercellular adhension
molecule) and IL-6 (interleukin), all in response to cytokines. Autoantigen
presentation by class 2-expressing beta cells has not been demonstrated and
this hypothetical function is not supported by experiments with transgenic mice.
Cytokines like IL-1 and TNF may be important in beta cell destruction, intra-islet
specificity possibly being achieved because beta cells are already damaged or
are particularly susceptible to this type of injury. Immunosuppressive treatment
has on the whole been disappointing. The most promising agent, cyclosporin A,
produces a modest increase in insulin-free remissions but these are only
temporary and there are major side effects of prolonged therapy. One possible
strategy to improve outcome would be commencement of immuno-modulatory
treatment before presentation, when around 90% of the beta cells are already
destroyed. This depends on the availability of reliable prediabetic markers and
recent progress suggests that such screening may soon be feasible.
2. Hypothyroidism
Primary hypothyroidism, the most common form, is probably an autoimmune
disease, usually occurring as a result of Hashimoto's thyroiditis and is associated
often with a firm goiter or, later in the disease process, with a shrunken fibrotic
thyroid gland with little or no function. Iodine deficiency and rare inherited
enzymatic defects can also cause hypothyroidism.
Patients with hypothyroidism have a dull facial expression and their voice is
hoarse and speech is slow. Other symptoms are facial puffiness and periorbital
swelling. In addition to that cold intolerance may be prominent; eyelids droop;
hair and the skin is coarse and dry. Weight gain is modest and is largely the
result of decreased metabolism of food and fluid retention. Patients are forgetful
and show other evidence of intellectual impairment, with a gradual change in
personality. Some appear depressed. There may be frank psychosis (myxedema
madness).
A decrease in both thyroid hormone and adrenergic stimulation causes
bradycardia. The heart may be enlarged, partly because of dilation but chiefly
because of the accumulation of a serous effusion of high protein content in the
pericardial sac. Pleural or abdominal effusions may be noted. The pericardial and
pleural effusions develop slowly, and only rarely result in respiratory or
hemodynamic distress. Patients generally note constipation. Women with
hypothyroidism often develop menorrhagia, in contrast to the hypomenorrhea of
hyperthyroidism. Hypothermia is commonly noted. Mild anemia is often present,
usually normocytic-normochromic and of unknown etiology, but it may be
hypochromic owing to menorrhagia, and sometimes macrocytic because of
associated pernicious anemia or decreased absorption of folic acid.
Myxedema coma is a life-threatening complication of hypothyroidism. Its
characteristics include a background of long-standing hypothyroidism, coma with
extreme hypothermia (temperatures 24 to 32.2° C [75.2 to 90° F]), areflexia,
seizures, CO2 retention, and respiratory depression.
Hypothroidism can be treated by oral thyroid hormone replacement. A variety of
thyroid hormone preparations are available for replacement therapy, including
synthetic preparations of T4 (L-thyroxine), triiodothyronine (liothyronine),
combinations of the two synthetic hormones, and desiccated animal thyroid.
Synthetic preparations of T4 (L-thyroxine) are preferred. T3 is generated from the
T4 in peripheral tissues.
T3 (liothyronine sodium) should not be used alone for long-term replacement
because its rapid turnover requires that it be taken bid. Additionally, patients
receiving T3 are chemically hyperthyroid for at least several hours a day and thus
may be exposed to greater cardiac risks.
Myxedema coma is treated with a large initial dose of T4 or T3. Corticosteroids
are also given since the possibility of central hypothyroidism cannot be initially
ruled out. The patient should not be re-warmed rapidly because of the threat of
cardiac arrhythmias. Hypoxemia is common, so Pao2 should be measured at the
outset of treatment. If alveolar ventilation is compromised, immediate mechanical
ventilatory assistance is required. The precipitating illness should be rapidly and
appropriately treated and fluid replacement given carefully, since hypothyroid
patients do not excrete water appropriately. Finally, all drugs should be given
cautiously since they will be metabolized more slowly than in normal people.
3. Acromegaly
Acromegaly is a condition resulting from excess growth hormone production and
it results in excessive growth.
Symptoms of acromegaly vary depending on how long the patient has had the
disease. The most common symptoms are:




















swelling of the hands and feet
facial features become coarse as bones grow
body hair becomes coarse as the skin thickens and/or darkens
increased perspiration accompanied with body odor
protruding jaw
voice deepening
enlarged lip, nose, and tongue
thickened ribs (creating a barrel chest)
joint pain
degenerative arthritis
enlarged heart
enlargement of other organs
strange sensations and weakness in arms and legs
snoring
fatigue and weakness
headaches
loss of vision
irregular menstrual cycles in women
breast milk production in women
impotence in men
Treatment of acromegaly depends on the cause of the disease. Ninety percent of
acromegaly cases are caused by benign tumors on the pituitary gland. Because
the tumor is compressing the pituitary gland, the hormone production can be
altered. Some other acromegaly cases are caused by tumors of the pancreas,
lungs, or adrenal glands.
The goal of treatment is to restore the pituitary gland to normal function,
producing normal levels of growth hormone. Treatment may include removal of
the tumor, radiation therapy, and injection of a growth hormone blocking drug.
Left untreated, acromegaly can lead to diabetes mellitus and hypertension.
The disease also increases a patient's risk for cardiovascular disease and
colon polyps that may lead to cancer.
How can a healthy endocrine system be maintained?
The glands in the endocrine system and the hormones they secrete influence
practically every cell, organ and function of our bodies. The body´ s equilibrium,
the reproductive system, the immune system, the emotional well-being, blood
pressure, cholesterol, tissue function, sexual function, stress, metabolism, growth
and development, all these are influenced by healthy endocrine glands. So, it is
very important to maintain a healthy endocrine system.
However, poor nutrition and stress puts a burden on the glands, often leading to
a depleted state. For example, our adrenals release adrenalin which is produced
during stress. When our adrenals become exhausted by repeated stress, it leads
to reactive hypoglycemia. Our pancreas, in charge of sugar metabolism, can
then also become exhausted which lead to diabetes.
Like all organs, our glands need good nutrition. Vital nutrients include vitamins,
minerals, and amino acids such as C, E, B-complex, zinc, chromium, selenium,
alanine, glycine, and glutamic acid. These nutrients are necessary for proper
glandular function and as building blocks by which the glands construct their
corresponding hormones. Healthy endocrine glands help ensure our bodies get
adequate amounts of necessary hormones such as adrenalin, insulin,
testosterone, and estrogen. Without these important glands we cannot handle
stress or sugars properly, nor can we reproduce healthy children.
To sum up, a wellness plan for support of endocrine and glandular system
includes:




Regular exercise
Healthy diet emphasizing fruits and vegetables
Stress management
Avoid prolonged exposure to pesticides and other man-made chemicals
Pharmacists’ Supplement Recommandations:






Vitamins and Minerals - betacarotene, vitamins A, C, D, E, B-complex,
pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid, zinc, selenium, chromium, manganese,
copper, iodine, magnesium, calcium, potassium
Herbs and Phytonutrients - licorice root, kelp, alfalfa, Siberian Ginseng, Irish
moss, parsley, hops, capsicum, lycopene, bioflavonoids
Essential Fatty Acids - omega-3 and omega-6
Antioxidants - grape seed extract, Vitamin E
Amino Acids - glutamic acid, alanine, glycine, dimethylglycine (DMG)
Glandular Extracts - especially adrenal, pituitary, thymus, pancreas.
INTERNET LINKS
Http://kidshealth.org/parent/general/body-nasics/endocrine.html
http://www.merck.com/mrkshared/mmanual/section2/chapter3d
http://www.umm.edu/endocrin/acromegaly.htm
http://www.rxwellmescenter.com/Endocrine20%and20%glandular.asp-4ok
http://www.longevityplus.net
http://www.meditationcenter.com/lecture/storms.html
BIBLIOGRAPHY (for parts 1 –2)
Williams Textbook of Endocrinology – Wilson, Foster, Kronenberg, Larsen Saunders
Principles and Practice of Endocrinology and Metabolism – Becker - Lippincott
Testosterone – E.Nieschlag, H.M.Behre - Springer
Endocrine Secrets – M. T. McDermott – Mosby
Fundamentals of Clinical Endocrinology – R. Hall, M. Besser – Churchill Livingstone
Diseases of the Thyroid – M.H. Wheeler, J.H. Lazzarus – Chapman and Hall Medical
WORDS USED WITHIN THE ESSAY
List of Medical words:
ΤERM
Example in
Word class
context
information
Primary
hypothyroidism,
the most
common form,
autoimmune is probably an
adjective
autoimmune
disease…
coma
hormone
injection
insulin
… Longstanding
hypothyroidism,
coma with
extreme
hypothermia…
The glands in
the endocrine
system and the
hormones they
secrete
influence
practically
every cell,
organ and
function of our
bodies.
regular insulin
injections help
the patients to
control their
blood sugar
levels
… The
pancreas fails
to produce
enough
insulin…
noun
noun
noun
noun
Dictionary definition
A condition that
results from
sensitization to
products of one’s
own organs
Insensibility, stupor,
sleep
A substance
produced in one
organ, which excites
functional activity at
a distant site
Introduction of
material
under pressure into
tissues
A poly-peptide
hormone, secreted
by the β-cells of the
Langerhans in the
pancreas
Greek
translation
αυτοάνοσος
κώμα
ορμόνη
ένεση,
ενιεμένη
ουσία
ινσουλίνη
metabolism
polydipsia
polyuria
stroke
symptoms
body´ s
equilibrium,…,
metabolism,
growth, are
influenced by
healthy
endocrine
glands
Symptoms
include hunger,
polydipsia,
polyuria
Symptoms
include hunger,
polydipsia,
polyuria
It can cause
multiple longterm
complications
including… and
stroke
Symptoms of
acromegaly
vary depending
on….
noun
Chemical process
taking place in living
cells which may be
divided into
constructive or
building-up process
(anabolism) and
destructive or
breaking-down
process
(catabolism)
μεταβολισμός
noun
Abnormal thirst
πολυδιψία
noun
Excessive
production of urine
Πολυουρία
noun
Cerebrovascular
accident
noun
A noticeable change
in the body and its
functions, evidence
of disease
Αιφνίδια
προσβολή,
χτύπημα
σύμπτωμα
List of Academic words:
TERM
complication
congenital
Example in
context
It can cause
multiple long-term
complications
including kidney
problems…
Viruses have some
role, most clearly
shown in the
congenital rubella
syndrome;
Word class Dictionary
Greek
information definition
translation
noun
disorder arising επιπλοκή
from the
circumstances
produced by a
disease
adjective
Existing at birth Συγγενής,
εκ γενετής
hormones,…,
controlling the body
functions
heterogeneous …diabetes mellitus
is actually a group
of disorders that
are
heterogeneous,…
treatment
The goal of
treatment is to
restore the pituitary
gland to normal
function
function
noun
adjective
noun
The normal
special work of
an organ
Differing in
kind or in
nature
λειτουργία
ετερογενής
A way of curing Αγωγή,
a disease
θεραπεία