CHAPTER 9 - GENETICS
Gregor Mendel – father of modern genetics, discovered via crossbreeding pea plants.
Haploid – NOTE: ‘loid, ploidy’ means the number of homologous sex chromosomes in a
biological cell. In humans, most cells are Diploid because of one set of chromosomes
from each parent. SEX cells are haploid, because they only have half of a full set.
Diploid – see above
Gamete – a cell that fuzes with another during fertilization in any organism that
reproduces sexually
Heretozygous - describes an individual that has 2 different alleles for a trait. In diploid
organisms, the two different alleles were inherited from the organism's two parents. For
example a heterozygous individual would have the allele combination Pp.
Homozygous – basically same as above, but think homo as two of the same, so a
homozygous person would have PP
True-breeding – an organism that has a trait, e.g. red hair. When paired with another truebreeding organism, they will ONLY produce offspring with the same trait
Homologous chromosomes - chromosomes in a biological cell that pair (synapse) during
meiosis, or alternatively, non-identical chromosomes that contain information for the
same biological features and contain the same genes at the same loci but possibly
different genetic information, called alleles, at those genes. For example, two
chromosomes may have genes encoding eye color, but one may code for brown eyes, the
other for blue.
Autosome – a non sex chromosome. E.g. NOT X/XY/etc. so male/female chromosomes
would be the same
Sex-chromosome – XX/XY/etc
Meiosis - the process by which one diploid eukaryotic cell divides to generate four
haploid cells often called gametes
Crossing over - the process by which two chromosomes, paired up during prophase 1 of
meiosis, exchange some portion of their DNA
Allele - a viable DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) coding that occupies a given locus
(position) on a chromosome. Usually alleles are sequences that code for a gene, but
sometimes the term is used to refer to a non-gene sequence. An individual's genotype for
that gene is the set of alleles it happens to possess. In a diploid organism, one that has two
copies of each chromosome, two alleles make up the individual's genotype.
Loci (locus) – position of a gene on a chromosome
Parental – initial pairing of parents in a genetic tree
Filial 1 (f1), and F2 – 1st,2nd generation after parents
Dominant trait – think of Pp, P will override p
Recessive – will be subservient to P, but when combined pp, it will show
Genotype – a person’s genetic makeup
Phenotype – a person’s outward showing of genetic traits
Monohybrid - A Monohybrid cross is a cross between individuals who are identically
heterozygous at one locus, for example, Bb x Bb, so for example the will have 4 kids in
the punett square, and 1 will be recessive with bb
Dihybrid - A dihybrid cross is a cross between two individuals identically heterozygous
at two loci for example: RrYy/RrYy. A dihybrid cross is often used to test for dominant
and recessive genes in two separate characteristics.
Incomplete dominance - a heterozygous genotype that creates an intermediate phenotype.
In this case, only one allele (usually the wild type) at the single locus is expressed, and
the expression is doseage dependent. Two copies of the gene produce full expression,
while one copy of the gene produces partial expression in an intermediate phenotype.
Co-dominance - In codominance, neither phenotype is completely dominant. Instead, the
heterozygous individual expresses both phenotypes. A common example is the ABO
blood group system. The gene for blood types has three alleles: A, B, and i. i causes O
type and is recessive to both A and B. The A and B alleles are codominant with each
other. When a person has both an A and a B allele, the person has type AB blood.
Pleiotropism - Pleiotropy occurs when a single gene influences multiple phenotypic traits,
example sickle cell anemia
Polygenicity –
Epistasis – think of the puppy’s coat color, the influence of one allele on the expression
of the other
Linkage - The amount of crossing over that occurs is directly proportional to the distance
between the alleles.
CHAPTER 10 – DNA/STUPID SHIT
Chromatin - the complex of DNA and protein that makes up chromosomes
Nucleosome - the fundamental repeating units of all eukaryotic chromatin (except when
packaged in sperm). They package DNA into chromosomes inside the cell nucleus and
control gene expression. They are made up of DNA and four pairs of proteins called
histones, and resemble "beads on a string of DNA"
Histone protein - the chief protein components of chromatin. They act as spools around
which DNA winds, and they play a role in gene regulation
Purines - organic compound, Purines make up one of the two groups of nitrogenous
bases. Pyrimidines make up the other group. These bases make up a crucial part of both
deoxyribonucleotides and ribonucleotides, and the basis for the universal genetic code.
Pyrimidines – see above
Adenine - a purine with a variety of roles in biochemistry including cellular respiration,
in the form of both the energy-rich adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and the cofactors
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), and
protein synthesis, as a chemical component of DNA and RNA. Basically a lot of shit.
Guanine - one of the five main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA;
the others being adenine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil
Thymine – see above
Cytosine – see above
Uracil – see above
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic
instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms.
Think of blueprints.
RNA - a nucleic acid, consisting of many nucleotides that form a polymer. Each
nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a ribose sugar, and a phosphate. RNA plays
several important roles in the processes of translating genetic information from
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) into proteins. One type of RNA acts as a messenger
between DNA and the protein synthesis complexes known as ribosomes, others form
vital portions of the structure of ribosomes, act as essential carrier molecules for amino
acids to be used in protein synthesis, or change which genes are active.
RNA polymerase - an enzyme that makes an RNA copy of a DNA or RNA template. In
cells, RNAP is needed for constructing RNA chains from DNA genes, a process called
transcription
DNA polymerase - an enzyme that assists in DNA replication. Such enzymes catalyze the
polymerization of deoxyribonucleotides alongside a DNA strand, which they "read" and
use as a template. The newly-polymerized molecule is complementary to the template
strand and identical to the template's partner strand
Nucleic acids - a macromolecule composed of nucleotide chains. In biochemistry these
molecules carry genetic information or form structures within cells. The most common
nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Nucleic
acids are universal in living things, as they are found in all cells. They are also found in
viruses. Long story short, DNA and RNA.
Amino acids - a molecule that contains both amine and carboxyl functional groups
Proteins - large organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and
joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent
amino acid residues. The sequence of amino acids in a protein is defined by a gene and
encoded in the genetic code
Radioisotopes –
Bacteriophage - any one of a number of viruses that infect bacteria
Transcription - the process by which genetic information from DNA is transferred into
RNA
Translation - Translation occurs in the cytoplasm where the ribosomes are located.
Ribosomes are made of a small and large subunit which surrounds the mRNA. In
translation, messenger RNA (mRNA) is decoded to produce a specific polypeptide
according to the rules specified by the genetic code. This uses an mRNA sequence as a
template to guide the synthesis of a chain of amino acids that form a protein.
Intron - non-coding sections of DNA
Exon - any region of DNA within a gene that is transcribed to the final messenger RNA
(mRNA) molecule, rather than being spliced out from the transcribed RNA molecule
Splicing - a modification of genetic information after transcription, in which introns of
precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) are removed and exons of it are joined
Wobble hypothesis –
5’ cap –
3’ poly-A
Codon - genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material
(DNA or RNA sequences) is translated into proteins (amino acid sequences) by living
cells
AUG –
mRNA - a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical "blueprint" for a protein product
tRNA - a small RNA chain (73-93 nucleotides) that transfers a specific amino acid to a
growing polypeptide chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis during translation
rRNA - type of RNA synthesized in the nucleolus by RNA polymerase I, is the central
component of the ribosome
ribosome - complexes of RNA and protein that are found in all cells. The function of
ribosomes is the assembly of proteins, in a process called translation. Ribosomes do this
by catalysing the assembly of individual amino acids into polypeptide chains by reading
messenger RNAs and binding amino acids that are attached to transfer RNA molecules.
large subunit –
small subunit –
DNA mutation –
Point mutation –
Frameshift mutation –
CHAPTER 11: more gay stuff
Differentiation - a concept from developmental biology describing the process by which
cells acquire a "type"
Gene regulation - refers to the cellular control of the amount and timing of changes to the
appearance of the functional product of a gene. Although a functional gene product may
be an RNA or a protein, the majority of the known mechanisms regulate the expression of
protein coding genes. Any step of the gene's expression may be modulated, from DNARNA transcription to the post-translational modification of a protein
Operator - a segment of DNA which regulates the activity of the structural genes of the
operon that it is linked to, by interacting with a specific repressor or activator
Enhancer - a short region of DNA that can bind proteins called an activator (genetics),
binding of activators to this enhancer region can initiate the transcription of a gene that
may be some distance away from the enhancer, or can even be on a different
chromosome
Promoter - a regulatory region of DNA located upstream (towards the 5' region) of a
gene, providing a control point for regulated gene transcription.
RNA polymerase - an enzyme that makes an RNA copy of a DNA or RNA template
Lac repressor - a DNA-binding protein which inhibits the expression of genes coding for
proteins involved in the metabolism of lactose in bacteria
Lactose - a disaccharide
Chemical inactivation –
Nucleosomes – see chapter 9
Chromatin – see 9
Transcription factors - a protein that binds to specific parts of DNA using DNA binding
domains and is part of the system that controls the transfer (or transcription) of genetic
information from DNA to RNA
Stem cells – cells that have the ability to change into other types of cells
CHAPTER 13: Evolution - Gay Cat 5
Charles Darwin – duh, founder of modern evolutionary theory
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