E
urope’s tumultuous 16th century…
Lutheranism and the Hapsburg-Valois Wars (fought largely between Charles V (Spanish House
of Habsburg and the French kings supporting a disunified German state and a weakened
Hapsburg family). (1522-1559)
Peace of Augsburg 1555: Charles V abdicates German control, the religious future of Germany to
Frances delight is to be decided by her several hundred German kings. Germany is to be
disunified and France has a check on Habsburg power. Lutheranism emerges dominant in
Germany.
French difficulties: Valois dynasty surges to power under Louis XI (Spider King). Louis was
known to be treacherous and sought tremendous power, his role in the wake of the Hundred
Years War (England and France 1337-1453) saw France emerge more powerful economically.
Serfdom had basically disappeared.
 The 15oo’s saw the French state mimic and attempt to import the Italian
Renaissance under the great patron Francis I the Louvre was built and the Mona
Lisa bought…problem they spent too much. Habsburg Valois wars added to the
tumult with a high cost.
 Religious tumult: the Concordat of Bologna gave the French king power over
ecclesiastical appointments, making Catholicism the official religion. Corruption
emerged, Calvinism grew. Calving wrote in French, the cultural connection was
strong. Calvinism became an industrial-urban concept in France.
 Religious Civil War: 1559-1589: sprung from the strong Valois dynasties were the
weak sons of Henry II who died in 1559. 2/5-1/4 of the French nobility was
Calvinist. Calvinists and Royal Catholics began to clash. Struggle had
economic, social, and political ramifications. Clergy on both sides encouraged
the bloodshed.
 French has a revolutionary heritage earlier centuries saw revolts after the plague
and economic crisis…this was different.
 Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre: King’s sister Margaret Valois was to marry a
prominent Protestant Henry Navarre, the goal reconciliation. The result,
bloodshed.
 Charles de Guise had the Huguenot leader attacked, massacres of the Huguenot
gentry emerged…result? The War of the three Henry’s. King Henry III, Henry
Navarre, and Charles de Guise. The result fifteen years of chaos and massacres.
Saved by an enlightened minority the “politiques” who felt that ecclesiastical
concerns were unworthy of human bloodshed. 2/3 of the Henry’s assassinated,
Henry of Navarre emerges, converts to Catholicism, establishes the Edict of
Nantes and a period of religious tranquility emerges. Internal peace restored
and a tradition of strong French kings emerges.
Revolt of the Netherlands:
Religious crisis in the Netherlands: Netherlands a seminal area in European commerce.
Controlled by Charles V, this was a banking and trading center, the culture was cosmopolitan
and vibrant. Netherlands were 17 independent entities governing themselves under the guise of
Habsburg control, Charles V was from the Southern part of the Netherlands around Ghent.
Charles kept it together; when he retired he divided the house of Habsburg into two parts:
1. Ferdinand: Austria and the Holy Roman Empire
2. Phillip II: Spain, the Low Countries, Italy, and the Spanish possessions abroad.
Calvinism was the problem, it encouraged civil disobedience. 1566 saw a revolt and destruction
that eventually settled on the Cathedral of Notre Dame. The building and culture of the area was
devastated. From there the violence spread throughout the region.

Phillip sent troops to pacify the region, the pacification turned bloody. Civil
war raged for 10 years between 1568 and 1578. William of Orange united the
seventeen provinces; Spain gradually crushed the revolt in the Southern provinces,
the North united into the Union of Utrecht (United Provinces). The Southern part
remained Catholic (Belgium) the Northern became the Netherlands (Protestant.)
Phillip II didn’t accept this division but the geography (Dikes, Canals, Sluices) made
conquest nearly impossible…so the issue turned to England. .

Elizabeth didn’t want to antagonize Phillip, but the Netherlands were the
most important trading partner for English wool…she also knew that conquest of the
region would lead to likely conquest of England by the Spanish. Three
developments forced her hand.
1. Struggle hurt the English economy
2. William the Silent (Orange) murdered, military check on Spain removed.
3. Collapse of Antwerp in 1584 posed a serious problem for England, possible
Spanish conquest into England?

Elizabeth pumps 250,000 pounds into the war effort and sends 2,000 troops, in
addition she puts the violently Catholic Mary of Scots (cousin) to death, agitating
Phillip II and encouraging him to act.

As the self appointed global defender of Catholicism Phillip II could not sit idly
by…the Pope encourage him with a 1,ooo,ooo ducat promise of support…Phillip
used his South American wealth to launch the Armada a powerful fortress of 130
vessels set to conquer England.

England countered with a 150 smaller ships, many of which were set a blaze and
using the narrow “Salamis” strategy they were successful. The devastating Spanish
result was facilitated by the “Protestant Winds” which devastated the Spanish fleet.
The consequences of the war were many: Spain placed a renewed emphasis on naval
power, England rallied around the event and emerged more powerful and sought
overseas empires, Habsburg domination of Western Europe was now impossible.
The Thirty Years War: (1618-1648)
·
In response to the frail peace established by the peace of Augsburg. The factionist
condition of Germany had minimized central control in the region; the principalities were
fragmented and allowed for no freedom of religion. The religious climate in Europe was
about to erupt.
·
Lutherans formed the Protestant Union in 1608 and the Catholics responded with the
Catholic League of 1609. The two were now in armed camps.
·
Dynastic issues relating to the Hapsburgs were also at stake. Violence erupted first in
Bohemia, in this free region the king-closed Protestant churches…the response the hurling
of two ministers out the window of a castle! Thus begins the thirty years war.
·
War occurred in four phases.
o
Bohemia: 1618-1625: civil war in Bohemia over religious liberty and independence
from the Hapsburgs. Protestants defeated in Bohemia at Battle of White Mountain.
o
Danish: 1625-1629: Danish lead by the ineffective King Christian IV the ineffective!
More catholic victories, 1629 the peak of Hapsburg power. Saw all catholic properties lost
since 1552 restored (edict of restitution). Minor sects abolished. Balance of power shifting.
o
Swedish: 1630-1635: Gustavus Adolphus the Swedish king intervened on behalf of the
Protestants to save the Protestants. Gustavus won brilliant military victories solidifying
the Protestant come back. He was mortally wounded at Lutzen. The entrance of the
Swedes into the conflict saved the protestants and Germans in Europe. The effort suffered
after the death of Gustavus Adolphus, however this will inspire the catholic French to join
on the side of the Protestants and oppose the Hapsburgs.
o
French Phase: 1635-1648: the French Phase saw the initiation of the French into the
cause. Their support will break the stalemate on behalf of the Protestants and in October of
1648 the Peace of Westphalia was signed bringing about peace to the region.
o
Impacts of Westphalia:
 Reorganized Germany, recognized German principalities.
 Holy Roman Empire destroyed
 United Provinces of the Netherlands acknowledged.
 Emergence of French Power.
 Limit to the power of the Hapsburgs.
 Calvinism a legally permissible creed.
 Disaster for European economics
 Death of unspeakable proportions 1/3 –2/5 of effected areas.
 Rise in value of labor due to loss of life.
Changing Attitudes:
·
Status of Women: expected to be mature, good household manager, subservient and
faithful. Husbands owed fidelity and protection. Had meager advancements in their role in the
workplace. Both parties could own property and divorce. Prostitution common for both sexes.
Protestant nuns encouraged marrying.
·
The Great Witch hunt: religious nerves had been exposed and one extension of this was the
Witch Hunt of the 16th century, an event that saw thousands executed for their heresy (or what
they thought was heresy). Belief in witches was not new, but the religious confusion and tension
was. Imagination ran wild as people of all types were thought to have made covenants with the
Devil. (Stats 543)
·
Un diagnosable diseases, sexuality, psychosis, were amongst the causes of witchcraft.
·
Slavery and Racism: Slavery was common in Europe during the Renaissance and remained
so during the era following. The need for importation of Slaves became even more common as
expansion and religious wars rolled on. The need for labor became widespread. As this
exploitation continued social attitudes emerged as the labor pool shrunk. Elitist attitudes grew as
the terms Beastly were associated with these persons. These attitudes will take generations to
overturn.