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Period 1 and 2 - Foundations (8000 BCE – 600 CE) begins with the Neolithic Revolution and ends after the fall of the 3
major classical civilizations (Rome in the Mediterranean region, Han China, and the Gupta Empire of India).
Chapter 1: Before History
I.
The evolution of Homo sapiens
A.
The hominids
1.
Australopithecus
a.
Appeared in east Africa about four million to one million years ago
b.
Walked upright on two legs; well-developed hands
2.
Homo erectus
a.
2.5 million to two hundred thousand years ago, east Africa
b.
Large brain; sophisticated tools; definitely knew how to control fire
c.
Migrated to Asia and Europe; established throughout by 200,000 years ago
B.
Homo sapiens; evolved as early as two hundred thousand years ago
1.
Humans used fire to aid hunting/gathering, protect against predators, & adapt to cold climates
2.
New tools to deal with new environments
3.
Some groups exchanged people, goods, and ideas
II.
Paleolithic society
A.
Economy and society of hunting and gathering peoples
1.
Prevented individuals from accumulating private property
2.
Lived an egalitarian existence
3.
Lived in small bands, about thirty to fifty members in each group
4.
Big game hunting with special tools and tactics
III.
The Neolithic era and the transition to agriculture (Neolithic/Agricultural Revolution – not really a revolution
because it spread slowly, but the idea of revolution is appropriate b/c of the magnitude of change)
A.
The origins of domesticated foods and animals
1.
Neolithic era (12,000-6,000 years ago); new stone age; refined tools and agriculture
a.
Neolithic women began systematic cultivation of plants
b.
Neolithic men began to domesticate animals
c.
Variety depended on locale
2.
Early agriculture around 9000 B.C.E.
a.
Agriculture emerged independently in several parts of the world
b.
Merchants, migrants, and travelers spread food knowledge
c.
Shifting cultivation/Slash-and-burn involved frequent movement of farmers
d.
Agriculture was more work than hunting/gathering but steady, large supply of food
3.
pastoral nomadism – following domesticated herds (sheep, goats, cows, reindeer, camels,
and/or horses); do not settle in villages; do not form basis for cities;
B.
Early agricultural and pastoral societies; population explosion; stable food source allowed for more
permanent homes and larger families
1.
Start of villages/towns: Jericho, earliest known neolithic village and Çatal Hüyük, 8,000 pop.
2.
Allows some laborers to specialize in a craft: pottery, metallurgy, and textile production
3.
Social distinctions, due to private land ownership
Ch 2: Early Societies
I.
River valley civilizations: Mesopotamia/Tigris-Euphrates River Valley – 3500 BCE; northeast Africa/Egypt along
the Nile 3000; Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa - Indus River – 2500; northern China – Yellow/Huang He
A.
Common characteristics
1.
location along rivers = water for crops and transportation; fertile soil from floods
2.
complex irrigation systems – small groups could never have built these
3.
dev. of legal codes – civilizations needed a consistent set of regulations to govern society
4.
use of money – long distance trade made barter impractical
5.
elaborate art forms and/or written literature –
6.
needed formalized scientific knowledge, numbering systems, calendars
7.
intensification of social inequality – gender inequality grew and all societies practice some form
of slavery; slaves were captives of war or hereditary; more patriarchal/hierarchical
8.
generally more warlike
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9.
increasing technology (bronze, then iron)
Mesopotamia: "the land between the rivers" - Valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates
1.
Little rain, so area needs irrigation (small scale by 6000 B.C.E.)
2.
Food supplies increase = Human population increases = Migrants to the area increase
3.
First cities emerge, 4000 B.C.E.
a.
3200-2350 B.C.E., they evolve into city-states (control of surrounding region)
b.
Governments sponsor building projects and irrigation
c.
Attacks by others led to wall building and military development
C.
Sumerians in Mesopotamia – first major Mesopotamian civilization
1.
Developed an alphabet (cuneiform), art, astronomy (to understand seasons), number system
(10,60,360 –we use for calculating circles and hours), religious rituals, ziggurats (massive
towers as religious centers); courts, political system, slavery, wheels for carts, silver for money
2.
king who ruled through divine right
3.
city-states
D.
Strong city-states in Middle East lead to empires
1.
Akkadia – King Sargon (2370-2315 B.C.E.)
2.
Babylonia – 1st king Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.E.)
a.
Centralizes the bureaucracy and regulates taxation
b.
Law Code (Hammurabi’s): law of retribution and importance of social status
3.
Hittites (Indo-European group that settled in Anatolia) – took over Babylon 1595 BCE
4.
Assyria (northern Mesopotamia) – @ 1300-612 BCE; powerful army: professional officers
(merit), chariots, archers, iron weapons
E. Hebrews, Israelites, and Jews
1.
Early Hebrews are pastoral nomads - Abraham leads group to Palestine 1850 BCE
2.
Some migrate to Egypt in eighteenth century B.C.E. then back to Palestine with Moses
a.
Twelve tribes become Israelites
b.
Monarchs: David (1000-970 B.C.E.) then Solomon (970-930 B.C.E.)
c.
Ten Commandments: moral and ethical standards for followers
F.
The Phoenicians (also known as Carthaginians in n. Egypt) @3,000 BCE
1.
Little agriculture; live on trade and communications networks
2.
Have early alphabetical script (1500 B.C.E.) (basis for Greek alphabet)
G.
Africa
1.
Egypt--lower 1/3 of Nile River; Nubia—middle 1/3 of Nile (annual flooding makes rich soil for agri.
2.
Climatic change & dev. of agric. in Africa - Sahara used to be grasslands (10,000 BCE)
3.
The emergence of cities (not as prominent in Egypt as Mesop.) and stratified societies
a.
Social classes
I.
Egypt: peasants and slaves (agriculture), pharaoh (absolute ruler),
professional military and administrators
II.
Nubia: complex and hierarchical society
b.
Patriarchy in both but women have more influence than in Mesopotamia
I.
Women act as regents, like female pharaoh Hatshepsut
II.
Nubia: women serve as queens, priestesses, and scribes
4.
Early writing in the Nile valley - Hieroglyphics found on monuments and papyrus 3200 BCE
5.
The development of organized religious traditions (king was considered a god)
I.
Early Chinese Civilizations
1.
Shang Era – 1st dynasty in China - distinctive Ch. culture emerged @ 1500 BC
2.
Warlike nomads, ruled by strong kings with advanced military techniques
J.
Early Indus Valley Civilizations
1.
Khyber Pass allowed a connection between the Middle East and India
2.
Earliest city-states: Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro
G.
some civilizations were not associated with river valleys
1.
Olmecs in Mesoamerica – Mexico; appear 1200 BCE
2.
Chavin – Peru/Andes; between 1800 and 1200 BCE
B.
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3.
similar institutions even though they were totally separate from the rest of the world
(independent invention)
II.
The formation of a complex society and sophisticated cultural traditions
A.
Economic specialization, trade, and changing technology
1.
Pottery – pots were needed for cooking and storage; probably the first craft established
2.
Introduction of the plow meant more land could be cultivated more efficiently; greater
productivity led to the growth of towns and cities
3.
First metal used was copper because it did not require heat to be shaped
4.
Bronze Age – latter part of the Neolithic Age; bronze (copper/tin); weapons & tools
5.
Textile production – @6000 BCE; plant and animal fibers used; made at home
6.
Iron (about 1000 B.C.E.), cheaper and more widely available; weapons and tools (plow)
7.
Wheel (about 3500 B.C.E.) helps trade; carts can carry more goods further
8.
Shipbuilding: maritime trade increases in all directions; network develops
B.
Social classes
1.
Cities: more opportunities to accumulate wealth
2.
Kings (hereditary) and nobles (royal family and supporters) are highest class
3.
Priests and priestesses interpreted the gods’ wishes
4.
Free commoners (peasants); pay taxes and labor on building projects
5.
Slaves (POWs, criminals, debt servitude): mostly domestic servants
6.
Patriarchy (women are the inferiors and must be protected by men)
C.
The development of writing - Cuneiform, Mesopotamian writing
III.
Migrations
A.
The Indo-European migrations (4500-2500 BCE)
1.
Basis for many languages because of wide migration
2.
Originate in steppes of central Asia; pastoral agriculturalists
3.
Domesticate horses; learn to ride; use horses with carts, then chariots
4.
Hittites settle in central Anatolia about 2000 B.C.E.
5.
Migrations: Central Asia, Greece, Italy, central Europe, w. Europe, Britain, Iran, India (Aryans)
B.
Bantu expansion (3000-1000 BCE); by 1000 BCE occupy most of sub-Saharan Africa
1. Bantu--language group from west central Africa (around Nigeria)
2. Live along banks of rivers; use canoes
3. Cultivate yams and oil palms
4. Live in clan-based villages
5. Traded with hunting/gathering forest people
6. Absorb much of the population of hunter/gather/fisher people
7. Iron tools allow them to clear more land for agriculture
8. Iron weapons give them stronger position
Ch 4: Early Societies in South Asia
I.
Harappan society
A.
Background
1.
Neolithic villages in Indus River valley by 3000 B.C.E. (Dravidians)
2.
Earliest remains inaccessible because of silt deposits and rising water table
3.
Also little known because writing not yet translated
B.
Foundations of Harappan society
1.
The Indus River - Wheat and barley; cotton before 5000 B.C.E.
2.
No evidence about political system
3.
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro: two main cities
a.
Each city had a fortified citadel and a large granary; broad streets, marketplaces,
temples, public buildings; cities were planned and had their own plumbing and sewage
systems; standardized weights, measures, architectural styles, brick sizes
C.
Harappan society and culture
1.
Social distinctions, as seen from living styles
2.
Religious beliefs strongly emphasized fertility
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3.
II.
Ch 5:
I.
II.
III.
Harappan society declined from 1900 B.C.E. onward - Ecological degradation led to a
subsistence crisis and people began to abandon their cities by about 1700 B.C.E.
The Indo-European migrations and early Aryan India
A.
The Aryans - pastoral; no writing system; sacred language (Sanskrit); leaders of chiefdoms = raja
B.
Origins of the caste system to organize and order society
1.
Caste (hereditary, unchangeable social class) and varna (color)
2.
Social distinctions in the late Vedic Age; social mobility difficult but still possible
a.
Four main varnas: brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats), vaishyas
(cultivators, artisans, and merchants), shudras (landless peasants and serfs)
b.
Later the category of the untouchables was added
C.
Development of patriarchal/hierarchical society
1.
The Lawbook of Manu - Prepared by an anonymous sage, first century B.C.E.
a.
Dealt with moral behavior and social relationships
b.
Advised men to treat women with honor and respect
c.
Subjected women to the control and guidance of men
d.
Women's duties: to bear children and maintain the household
2.
Sati, social custom in which widow throws self on funeral pyre
D.
Religion - Aryan religion - blending of Aryan and Dravidian values = Hinduism
Early Societies in East Asia
Political organization in early China
A.
Early agricultural society and the Xia dynasty
1.
The Yellow River - "China's Sorrow"--extensive flooding; Loess provided rich soil
B.
The Shang dynasty: 1766-1122 B.C.E.
1.
Written records found
2.
Bronze metallurgy, monopolized by ruling elite
3.
Agricultural surpluses supported large armies
C.
The Zhou dynasty: 1122-256 B.C.E. (Classical China began with Zhou Dynasty)
1.
Mandate of heaven, the right to rule - The Zhou needed to justify the overthrow
a.
Ruler as "the son of heaven"
b.
Mandate of heaven only given to virtuous ruler
2.
Empress Wu ruled in her own right 690-705, but also ruled through her husband and sons
3.
Political organization: decentralized administration using princes and relatives to rule regions;
consequence: weak central government and rise of regional powers
4.
The fall of the Zhou - Nomadic invasions; territorial princes became more independent
5.
The Warring States (403-221 B.C.E.)
Society and family in ancient China
A.
The social order
1.
ruling elites - hereditary aristocrats w. extensive landholding, administrative and military offices
2.
Free artisans and craftsmen mostly worked for elites
3.
Peasants, the majority of population
a.
Landless peasants provided labor and lived in small subterranean houses
b.
Women's work: wine making, weaving, silkworm raising
4.
Few slaves
B.
Family and patriarchy
1.
Early dynasties ruled through family and kinship groups
a.
Veneration of ancestors - belief in ancestors' presence and their continuing influence
b.
Originally a matrilineal society; rise of large states brought focus on men's contribution
Early Chinese writing and cultural development
A.
The secular cultural tradition
1.
Absence of organized religion and priestly class
2.
Early Chinese writing, from pictograph to ideograph
3.
Zhou literature--many kinds of books – most are lost or destroyed
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IV.
Ch 6:
I.
II.
III.
Ancient China and the larger world
A.
Nomadic peoples of the steppe lands--herders
1.
Exchange of products between nomads and Chinese farmers : Nomads relied on grains and
manufactured goods of the Chinese; Chinese bought horses
2.
Nomads frequently invaded rich agricultural society
Early Societies in the Americas and Oceania
Early societies of Mesoamerica
A.
The Olmecs
1.
Migration to Mesoamerica
a.
Large wave of humans traveled from Siberia to Alaska around 13,000 B.C.E. reaching
the southernmost part of South America by 9500 BCE
2.
Early agriculture: beans, squashes, chilis; later, maize became the staple (5000 B.C.E.)
3.
No large domesticated animals, no wheeled vehicles
4.
Olmecs, lived near the Gulf of Mexico (1200 B.C.E.- 400 BCE)
a.
Elaborate complexes built; rulers' power shown in construction of huge pyramids
b.
The colossal human heads--possibly likenesses of rulers
5.
Influence of Olmec: maize, ceremonial centers, calendar, human sacrifice, ball game
B.
Heirs of the Olmecs: the Maya (300-900 CE)- lived in the city-states of the Yucatan
1.
Besides maize, they also cultivated cotton and cacao
2.
Tikal was the most important Maya political center; location based on astronomy
3.
Maya warfare: warriors had prestige; captives were slaves or victims
C.
Classical Mayan society and religion
1.
Maya society was hierarchical
a.
Kings, priests, and hereditary nobility at the top
b.
Merchants were from the ruling class; they served also as ambassadors
c.
Professional architects and artisans were important
d.
Peasants and slaves were majority of population
2.
The Maya calendar had both solar and ritual years interwoven
3.
Maya writing was ideographic and syllabic; only four books survive
4.
Religious thought
a.
Popol Vuh, a Mayan creation myth that gods created humans out of maize & water
b.
Gods maintained agricultural cycles in exchange for honors and sacrifices
c.
Bloodletting rituals honored gods for rains
D.
Heirs of the Olmecs: Teotihuacans - highlands of Mexico (400-750 CE)
1.
Teotihuacan society
a.
Rulers and priests dominated society
b.
Two-thirds of the city inhabitants worked in fields during daytime
c.
Artisans were famous for their obsidian tools and orange pottery
d.
Professional merchants traded extensively throughout Mesoamerica
e.
No sign of military organization or conquest
2.
Teotihuaca – political, religious, and economic center
Early societies of South America
A.
Early Andean society and the Chavín cult (Peru and Bolivia area) 900-300 BCE
1.
Complex societies appeared in central Andean region after 1000 B.C.E.
2.
Main crops: beans, peanuts, sweet potatoes, cotton
3.
Fishing supplemented agricultural harvests
4.
Complexity of Andean society increases during Chavín
5.
Devised techniques of producing cotton textiles and fishing nets
6.
Discovered gold, silver, and copper metallurgy
7.
Cities began to appear shortly after Chavín cult
8.
Early Andeans did not make use of writing
B.
Early Andean states: Mochica/Moche (300-700 C.E.) in northern Peru
Early societies of Oceania
A.
Early societies in Australia and New Guinea
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1.
I.
Human migrants arrived in Australia and New Guinea at least sixty thousand years ago
a.
About ten thousand years ago, rising seas separated Australia and New Guinea
b.
Australia: hunting and gathering until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries C.E.
c.
New Guinea: agriculture about 3000 B.C.E.; root crops and herding
2.
Austronesian peoples from southeast Asia were seafarers to New Guinea, 3000 B.C.E.
B.
Peopling of the Pacific Islands - Austronesian migration to Polynesia, Micronesia, and Madagascar
Belief Systems (Polytheisms, Hinduism, Judaism, Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism, and Christianity)
A.
Earliest - polydaemonism (belief in many spirits); animistic/shamanistic still today
1.
Neolithic people began to put these spirits together as gods responsible for one aspect of life:
war, sea, death, crops and domestic animals; Sun god, gods who supervised the rain, wind,
moon, or stars; fertility goddesses
2.
important to river valley civilizations to please the gods
B.
Impact of polytheism
1.
Center of art and architecture; works dedicated to the gods or built to appease the gods
2.
Leads to development of priest class; knew the rituals and they controlled contact with the
gods
3.
Gave predominance of city-states validity – their gods were in favor
C.
Hinduism – polytheism brought by the Aryans to India sometime after 2000 BCE
1.
Priests recited hymns, told stories and taught values which were written in The Vedas
2.
There is a universal spirit that guides all life on earth; a piece of the spirit called atman is
trapped inside humans and other living creatures; the desire of the atman is to be reunited
with the universal spirit and every aspect of an individual’s life is governed by it; when someone
dies, his or her atman may be reunited, but most are usually reborn in a new body; a person’s
caste is a clear indication of how close he or she is to the desired reunion
3.
Reincarnation – an atman spirit is reborn in a different person after one body dies; rebirth has
no beginning or end and is part of the universal spirit that pervades all life
4.
Karma – refers to the pattern of cause and effect that transcends individual human lives;
whether or not an individual fulfills his/her duties in one life determines what happens next
5.
Dharma –duties for each caste; if one fulfills his dharma, the reward is for the atman to be
reborn into a higher caste
6.
Moksha – highest most sought-after goal for the atman—reunion with the universal spirit
(represented by Brahman—in different shapes: Vishnu the Creator or Shiva the Destroyer
D.
Buddhism
1.
Began in India in the Ganges River area during the 6th century BCE
2.
founded by Siddhartha Guatama (Buddha or “Enlightened One”); left home to become an
ascetic (wandering holy man) to find the answers to meaning of life and why there was
suffering
3.
The Four Noble Truths –
a.
all of life is suffering
b.
suffering is caused by false desires for things that do not bring satisfaction
c.
suffering may be relieved by removing the desire
d.
desire may be removed by following the Eightfold Path
I.
the ultimate goal is to follow the path to nirvana, or a state of contentment
that occurs when the individual’s soul is united with the universal spirit
II.
achieved thru meditation; changes in one’s thought processes and lifestyle
4.
reincarnation did not follow the caste system; anyone can reach nirvana
5.
Buddhism probably survived because the Mauryan emperor Ashoka converted to Buddhism
and promoted it
6.
However, Buddhism spread more readily in areas reached by cultural diffusion/trade
E.
Confucianism – emerged during Warring States Period (403-221 BCE – btw. Zhou and Han Dynasties)
1.
Confucius contemplated on why China had fallen into chaos and concluded that the Mandate of
Heaven had been lost because the Chinese emperor did not fulfill his obligations to be good
and benevolent and also the poor behavior of his subjects
2.
Emphasis on harmony, order, and obedience
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3.
F.
G.
H.
I.
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Five Basic Relationships
a.
emperor/subject – the emperor has the responsibility to take care of his subjects, and
subjects must obey the emperor
b.
father/son – the father takes care of the son, the son obeys the father
c.
older brother/younger brother – the older brother takes care of the younger brother,
who in turn obeys him
d.
husband/wife – the husband takes care of the wife, who obeys the husband
e.
friend/friend – mutual care and obedience
4.
the “superior man” is one who exhibits ren (kindness), li (sense of propriety), and xiao (filial
piety, or loyalty to the family)
5.
endorsed inequality as an important part of an ordered society
6.
veneration of ancestors
7.
focus on self-knowledge and acceptance of the way things are; but is activist and extroverted
Daoism - founded by Laozi, a spiritualist who probably lived in the 4th century BCE
1.
centers on the Dao or Tao (the “Way” or “Path”) – the original force of the cosmos that is an
eternal and unchanging principle that governs all the workings of the world
2.
the Dao is passive – not active, good nor bad – but it just is; it cannot be changed, so humans
must learn to live with it
3.
it is human’s striving that brought the world to chaos because they resist the Dao
4.
wuwei, or a disengagement from the affairs of the world, including the government is best; the
less government the better
5.
live simply and in harmony with nature
6.
focus- self-knowledge & acceptance of the way things are; but is reflective & introspective
7.
affected Chinese culture: thru medical theories and practice; poetry; metallurgy; architecture
Legalism
1.
Arose during the Warring States Period by the first emperor of the Qin, Shi Huangdi
2.
No concern with ethics, morality, or propriety, and cared nothing about human nature or
governing principles of the world
3.
Emphasizes the rule of law – imperative for the laws to govern, not men
4.
Laws should be administered objectively and punishments harsh and swift
Judaism – first clearly monotheistic religion
1.
God selected the Hebrews as his chosen people through a covenant
2.
Destiny is paradise, reached by human beings with divine help
3.
Task is to honor and serve God by following the Laws of Moses, as contained in the Torah (1st 5
books of the Bible), to promote the ethics of the prophets, and maintain the identity of the
people
4.
Abraham and Moses
5.
Ten Commandments are the basis for Jewish law
6.
Conquests, particularly the Romans, led to diaspora in 73 AD
Christianity
1.
Founder – Jesus of Nazareth
2.
Longstanding Jewish belief that a Messiah, or leader would restore the Jewish kingdom to its
former glory
3.
Jesus’ followers saw him as the Messiah who would cleanse the Jewish religion of its elitism
and assure life after death to all that followed Christian precepts
4.
Appealed to the masses and deliberate conversion efforts meant that the religion grew
5.
Advocates a moral code based on love, charity, and humility
6.
Predicted a final judgment day when God would reward the righteous with immortality and
condemn sinners to eternal hell
7.
Paul was a converted Jew who spread Christianity into Greece and Rome
8.
4th century, Emperor Constantine of Rome, converted to Christianity and established a new
capital in the eastern city of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople; as a result, the
religion spread east and west
9.
Allowed women opportunities as nuns
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J.
Cultural and religious values also impacted the status of women
1.
In Buddhism and Christianity, women were considered equals and able to achieve salvation or
nirvana, women could choose to remove themselves from traditional roles to become nuns and
live separated from society
2.
Hinduism and Confucianism were much more structured and restricted
a.
A Hindu women could not read the sacred Vedas or participate in the prayers and could
not reach moksha in her lifetime
b.
Daoism in China promoted a balance of male and female, but Confucianism begins to
dominate in China and men became clearly superior
c.
However, under Confucian rule, education was open to a large % of the female pop.
because it was believed that women needed to be taught “proper” behavior and
virtues
Periodization 2 – to 600 CE
I.
Classical Civilizations (100 BCE – 600 CE): Mediterranean (Greece/Rome); India (Mauryan/Gupta); China
(Zhou/Qin/Han); and Mesoamerica (Maya) - period after the decline of the river valley civilizations is often called
the classical age; world history was shaped by the rise of several large civilizations
A.
differ from previous civilizations
1.
kept better records; know more about wars, leaders, and ordinary lives
2.
direct links to today’s world = root of civilizations that modern societies have grown from
3.
were expansionist, deliberately conquering lands around them to create large empires = much
larger in land space and populations than the river valley civilizations
4.
government was more complex
Ch 7: The Empires of Persia – created centralized governments, legal systems, and bureaucracies
I.
The rise and fall of the Persian Empires
A.
The Achaemenid Empire 558-334 BCE
1.
Medes & Persians migrated from central Asia (Indo-European) to Persia before 1000 BCE
2.
Kings: Cyrus then Darius, then Xerxes
a.
Twenty-three satrapies (Persian governors), appointed by central govt from locals
b.
Satraps' power was checked by military officers and "imperial spies"
c.
Replaced irregular tribute payments with formal taxes
d.
Standardization of coins and laws
e.
Communication systems: Persian Royal Road and postal stations
B.
Decline and fall of the Achaemenid Empire
1.
Xerxes (reigned 486-465 B.C.E.)
a.
Retreated from the policy of cultural toleration
b.
Caused ill will and rebellions among the peoples in Mesopotamia and Egypt
c.
The Persian Wars (500-479 B.C.E.) - Rebellion of Ionian Greeks
2.
Alexander of Macedon invaded and conquered Persia in 334 B.C.E.
C.
The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanid Empires follow Alexander’s rule
D.
Social development in classical Persia
1.
Nomadic society; importance of family and clan relationships
2.
Imperial bureaucrats - called for educated bureaucrats ; shared power and influence with
warriors and clan leaders
3.
Free classes were bulk of Persian society
4.
In the city: artisans, craftsmen, merchants, civil servants
5.
In the countryside: peasants, some building underground canals (qanats)
6.
Large class of slaves who were prisoners of war and debtors
E.
Religions in classical Persian society - Zarathustra and his faith - Zoroastrianism
1.
Ahura Mazda as a supreme deity, with six lesser deities (polytheistic)
2.
Cosmic conflict between Ahura Mazda (good) and Angra Mainyu (evil)
3.
Heavenly paradise and hellish realm as reward and punishment
4.
The material world as a blessing
5.
Moral formula: good words, good thoughts, good deeds
6.
Zoroastrianism influenced Judaism, Christianity, and later, Islam
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Ch 8: The Unification of China
II.
In search of political and social order – created centralized govt., legal systems, and bureaucracies
A.
Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) educator and political advisor
1.
Thoroughly practical: how to restore political and social order thru morals and ethics
2.
Concentrated on formation of junzi--"superior individuals"
B.
Daoism featured prominent critics of Confucian activism (Laozi founder)
1.
Preferred philosophical reflection and introspection, a life in harmony with nature
2.
Political implications: served as counterbalance to Confucian activism
C.
Legalism - The doctrine of practical and efficient statecraft: No concern with ethics/morality/nature
1.
The state's strength was in agriculture and military force
2.
Discouraged commerce, education, and the arts
3.
Called for harsh penalties even for minor infractions
4.
Advocated collective responsibility before the law
D.
The Qin dynasty - located in west China, adopted Legalist policies
1.
The first emperor was Qin Shihuangdi (221 B.C.E.)
a.
Established centralized imperial rule
b.
Project of connecting and extending the Great Wall
c.
Buried 460 scholars alive because of their criticism against the Qin
d.
Burned all books except some with utilitarian value
e.
Tomb was underground palace with army of life-size terra-cotta figures
2.
Policies of centralization - Standardization of laws, currencies, weights, measures, and scripts
(Chinese writing); encouraged agric. = strong economy; army with iron weapons
3.
The collapse of the Qin dynasty - Massive public works generated tremendous ill will among the
people = rebellion
E.
The early Han dynasty - Han Wudi, (141-87 B.C.E.), emphasized centralization and expansion
1.
Han centralization; adopted Legalist policies
a.
Sought a middle way between Zhou decentralization and Qin overcentralization
b.
Built an enormous bureaucracy to rule the empire
c.
Continued to build roads and canals with corvee labor (labor tax)
d.
Levied taxes on agriculture, trade, and craft industries
e.
Imperial monopolies on production of iron and salt
f.
Established Confucian educational system for training bureaucrats
2.
Han imperial expansion
a.
Invaded and colonized northern Vietnam and Korea
b.
organized vast armies to invade Xiongnu/Hun territory (nomads from steppes)
III.
From economic prosperity to social disorder
F.
Productivity and prosperity during the Former Han
1.
Vast majority of population were farmers
2.
Iron metallurgy: farming tools, utensils, and weapons
3.
Silk textiles; sericulture spread all over China during the Han; women made silk at home to earn
cash to pay taxes (gave women a measure of value)
4.
Paper production; replaced silk and bamboo as writing material
5.
Population growth: twenty million to sixty million from 220 B.C.E. to 9 C.E.
G.
Economic and social difficulties
1.
Expeditions consumed the empire's surplus
a.
Raised taxes and confiscated land of some wealthy individuals
b.
Taxes and land confiscations discouraged investment in manufacture and trade
2.
Social tensions, caused by stratification between the poor and rich
3.
Problems of land distribution
H.
The later Han dynasty (25-220 C.E.)
1.
Yellow Turban Uprising: revolt due to problems of land distribution
2.
Collapse of the Han
a.
Factions at court paralyzed the central government
b.
China was divided into regional kingdoms
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Ch 9: State, Society, and the Quest for Salvation in India
I.
The fortunes of empire in classical India – created centralized govt., legal systems, and bureaucracies
A.
The Mauryan dynasty and the temporary unification of India – 320-375 CE
1.
Ashoka Maurya (reigned 268-232 B.C.E.)--peak of empire;
2.
Ruled through tightly organized bureaucracy
3.
Policies were written on rocks or pillars (Rock and Pillar Edicts)
4.
Empire declined after his death b/c of financial problems, cultural diversity, invasions
B.
The revival of empire under the Guptas – “Golden Age” (375-415 CE) - founded by Chandra Gupta
a.
Smaller and more decentralized than Maurya
b.
After the fifth century C.E., Gupta dynasty continued in name only
c.
Lg. regional kingdoms dominated pol. life in India; separated due to diverse geog.
II.
Economic development and social distinctions
A.
Trade with Persia, China, Indian Ocean basin, Indonesia, southeast Asia, Mediterranean basin
B.
Family life and the caste system
1.
Gender relations: patriarchal families, female subordination, child marriage
a.
Women lost the right to own or inherit property
b.
Women could not participate in sacred rituals or study religion
c.
“Kama Sutra” – laws of love; discusses relationships between men and women;
emphasis on loving relations and sexual pleasure modified family life since the husband
and wife were to provide mutual emotional support as the marriage dev.
d.
Dowries paid
e.
Even with a patriarchal society, clever and strong-willed women were featured as
goddesses; stories celebrated women’s emotions and beauty
2.
Development of caste system
a.
With trade/commerce new social groups: artisans, craftsmen, merchants appeared
b.
These social groups functioned as subcastes, or jati
III.
Religions of salvation in classical India
A.
Jainism established in 5th c. BCE
1.
Inspired by the Upanishads: everything in universe has a soul
2.
Striving to purify one's selfish behavior to attain a state of bliss
3.
Principle of ahimsa, nonviolence toward all living things
4.
Appeal of Jainism
a.
Social implication: individual souls equally participated in ultimate reality
b.
Jains did not recognize social hierarchies of caste and jati
B.
Appeal of Buddhism
1.
Appealed strongly to members of lower castes because it did not recognize social hierarchies of
castes and jati; admitted untouchables and women
2.
Was less demanding than Jainism, which made it more popular
3.
Used vernacular tongues, not Sanskrit
Ch 10: Mediterranean Society: The Greek Phase
I.
Early development of Greek society – geography separated the city-states
A.
Sparta began to extend control during eighth and seventh centuries B.C.E.
1.
Reduced the neighboring peoples to the status of helots, or semi-free servants
2.
Maintained domination by a powerful military
3.
Discouraged social distinction, observed austere lifestyle
4.
Distinction was drawn by prowess, discipline, and military talent
B.
Athens – political, religious and economic center
1.
Citizenship was open to free adult males, not to foreigners, slaves, or women
2.
Direct democracy
3.
Maritime trade brought about prosperity to Attica, the region of Athens
II.
Greece and the larger world
A.
The Persian War (500-479 B.C.E.) - Greek cities on Ionian coast revolted against Persia
B.
The Delian League
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C.
D.
E.
III.
IV.
Ch 11:
I.
II.
1.
Military and financial alliance among Greek poleis against Persian threat
2.
When Persian threat subsided many no longer wanted to make contributions
The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.E.) - Tensions led to two armed camps, under leadership of Athens
and Sparta; Unconditional surrender of Athens, 404 B.C.E.
The Macedonians and empire (kingdom of Macedon, a frontier state north of peninsular Greece)
1.
Philip of Macedon (reigned 359-336 B.C.E.) brought Greece under control
2.
Alexander of Macedon succeeds Philip at age twenty and begins conquests
a.
By 331 B.C.E., controlled Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia
b.
Crossed Indus River by 327 B.C.E., army refused to go farther
c.
Died in 323 B.C.E. at age of thirty-three
Hellenistic Empires: Alexander's realm was divided into Antigonid (Greece and Macedon), Ptolemaic,
and Seleucid (largest, from Bactria to Anatolia)
The fruits of trade: Greek economy and society
A.
Trade and the integration of the Mediterranean Basin and colonization = Hellenization
1.
Trade and commerce flourished resulting in population growth and more colonies
2.
Production of olive oil and wine, in exchange for grain and other items
B.
Family and society
1.
Patriarchal society was the norm
a.
Women could not own landed property but could operate small businesses
b.
Priestess was the only public position for women
c.
Spartan women enjoyed higher status than women of other poleis
2.
Slavery: private chattel, property of their owners
a.
Worked as cultivators, domestic servants
b.
Educated or skilled slaves worked as craftsmen and business managers
The cultural life of classical Greece
A.
Rational thought and philosophy
1.
The formation of Greek cultural traditions: philosophy based on human reason
2.
Socrates (470-399 B.C.E.): "An unexamined life is not worth living"
a.
Encouraged reflection on questions of ethics and morality
b.
Was condemned to death on charge of corrupting Athenian youth
3.
Plato (430-347 B.C.E.): disciple of Socrates
a.
theory of Forms or Ideas-- world is imperfect reflection of world of Forms
b.
His Republic expressed the ideal of philosophical kings
4.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.): Plato's student, but distrusted theory of Forms
a.
Devised rules of logic to construct powerful arguments
b.
Philosophers should rely on senses to provide accurate information
B.
Popular religion and Greek drama show the nature of political power and hierarchies
1.
Greek deities: Zeus and scores of subordinate deities
2.
Various types of religious cults; Cult of Dionysus most popular
Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase
From kingdom to republic - created centralized government, legal system, and bureaucracy
A.
The Etruscans dominated Italy 8th to 5th centuries BCE
B.
The Roman republic (elected representatives) and its constitution
1.
Republican constitution included two consuls: civil and military
2.
Consuls were elected by an assembly dominated by the patricians
3.
Senate advised the consuls and ratified major decisions
4.
Both Senate and consuls represented the interests of the patricians
Shift from republic to empire
A.
Imperial expansion and domestic problems - military commanders recruited rural and urban poor-intensely loyal armies and civil war
1.
The expansion of the republic - Rome became preeminent power in e. and w. Mediterranean
2.
Conflict with Carthage (Punic Wars) (Hannibal) and Hellenistic realms
B.
Successful expansion
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III.
IV.
I.
II.
1.
Disciplined, trained military/legions
2.
Good agricultural economy which fed a large pop.
3.
Government was flexible and tolerant of different cultures
4.
Roman leaders made citizens out of some conquered elites
5.
Treaties and alliances
6.
Engineering and construction projects; first use of concrete
C.
The foundation of empire
1.
Julius Caesar: very popular social reformer and conqueror; centralized control
a.
Seized Rome in 49 BCE.; Claimed the title "dictator for life," 46.; assassinated in 44 BCE
2.
Octavion brought civil conflict to an end
3.
Cont. expansion and integration of the empire into Med. basin, w. Europe, down Nile to Kush
4.
Pax romana, Roman Peace, for two and a half centuries
5.
Well-engineered Roman roads; postal system
6.
Roman law--tradition: twelve tables (450 B.C.E.)
Economy and society in the Roman Mediterranean
A.
Trade and urbanization
1.
Owners of latifundia (plantations worked by slaves) specialized products for export
2.
Mediterranean trade - The Mediterranean became a Roman lake
a.
Roman navy kept the seas largely free of pirates
3.
The city of Rome – political and economic center
a.
Wealth of the city fueled its urban development infrastructure, etc.
b.
Attractions: baths, pools, gymnasia, circuses, stadiums, amphitheaters
B.
Family and society in Roman times
1.
The pater familias--eldest male of the family ruled
a.
Women wielded considerable influence within their families
b.
Many women supervised family business and wealthy estates
2.
Wealth and social change
a.
Newly rich classes built palatial houses and threw lavish banquets
b.
Cultivators and urban masses lived at subsistence level
c.
Poor classes became a serious problem in Rome and other cities
3.
Slavery--one-third of the population
The cosmopolitan Mediterranean
A.
Greeks influenced the Roman Republic and architecture
B.
Roman deities: gods, goddesses; Roman roads served as highways for religious spread
C.
Judaism and early Christianity
1.
Monotheistic Jews considered Roman deities to be blasphemy
2.
Jesus - Charismatic Jewish teacher, taught devotion to God & love for human beings
3.
The New Testament and the Old Testament became the holy book of Christianity
4.
Paul of Tarsus was principle figure in spread of Christianity
5.
Rapid growth of early Christianity
a.
Strong appeal to lower classes, urban population, and women
b.
Became the most influential faith in the Mediterranean by the 3rd century C.E.
China after the Han dynasty
A.
Internal decay of the Han state
1.
Problems of factions and land distribution led to rebellions
2.
Generals usurped political authority; the emperor became a puppet
a.
By 220 C.E., generals abolished the Han and divided the empire into 3 kingdoms
b.
Nomadic peoples came in; China became even more divided for 350 years
B.
Cultural change in post-Han China
1.
Gradual sinicization of nomadic peoples
2.
Withering of Confucianism in light of political instability
3.
Popularity of Buddhism brought by monks following the trade routes
The fall of the Roman empire
A.
Internal decay in the Roman empire
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1.
2.
B.
C.
I.
II.
The barracks emperors: series of generals seizing throne (235-284 C.E.
The emperor Diocletian (284-305 C.E.) - Divided the empire into two administrative districts; A
co-emperor ruled each district
3.
The emperor Constantine and new capital Constantinople – political, econ. and rel. center
Germanic invasions and the fall of the western Roman empire
1.
Germanic migrations from northern Europe to eastern and northern part of Roman empire
2.
The Huns under Attila attacked Europe mid-fifth century C.E.
Cultural change in the late Roman empire
1.
Christianity most prominent survivor of the collapse of the empire
2.
The Church became increasingly institutionalized
a.
Conflicting doctrines and practices among early Christians
b.
Established standardized hierarchy of church officials
c.
The bishop of Rome, known as the pope, became spiritual leader
d.
As Roman empire collapsed, Christianity served as a cultural foundation
Technology and Innovations through 600 CE
A.
Farming tools, metallurgy, and the ability to manipulate the environment caused humans to move from
nomadic hunter gatherers to builders of civilizations and empires in this 10,000 year period
1.
To farm, people needed farming implements, transportation and storage facilities
2.
Copper was the first metal used
B.
Once a society had enough goods it then had to defend itself
1.
Knowledge used to create farming societies used to create weapons and defense systems
2.
Wheeled chariots @1500 BCE
3.
Stirrup dev. among the nomadic societies of the Eurasian steppe and spread to China as early as
the 3rd c. BCE; stirrup arrived late in Europe b/c mountainous geog. of the Med. area limited the
use of chariots and horses
4.
horses were usually too small to carry heavily armored soldiers; because of this the armies of
Greece and Rome were usually foot soldiers armed with spears, bows, and arrows
C.
public works
1.
dikes and canals to contain floods and silt; then, steady water supply issues related to needs of
an agricultural society
2.
plumbing and sewage systems
3.
pyramids, ziggurats, walls, temples, aqueducts, coliseums, theaters, stadiums and roads which
asserted the authority of leaders, facilitated the functioning of the state, and kept the populace
healthy, employed, and entertained
D.
steady food supply allowed the dev. of specific skills related to luxury items: silk cotton, wool, semiprecious gems and jewelry; heavier goods including olive oil and spices were also traded
E.
to keep track of everything -- communication and record keeping
1.
relatively accurate calendars were developed by all civilizations, but only the Maya had a 365day solar calendar
2.
both the Maya and Gupta (separately) developed the idea of zero
F.
miscellaneous - windmills, wheelbarrows, gunpowder, alcohol, paper
Changes and Continuities in the role of Women
A.
Why did patriarchies increase?
1.
In hunter/gatherer societies, women probably provided most of the food = more equality
2.
Agricultural societies, move women more clearly into the home and men to the fields because
of the plowing and keeping of large herd animals; took them farther away from the home;
harder for women to tend children
3.
men, also, assumed the public roles and, therefore, made rules/laws that benefitted the status
of men
4.
women nursed babies a shorter time period and, therefore, had babies closer together;
porridges of grain could be substituted as baby food (city babies often malnourished)
5.
military service increased males’ status
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6.
B.
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female/goddess deities were replaced with male deities credited for creating the earth (Jewish
god needed no female participant to create the earth)
patriarchy in practice
1.
Mesopotamia--regulation of women’s sexuality—a wife caught sleeping with another man
might be drowned at her husband’s discretion; a man was permitted to have sex with a female
servant, but not with another man’s wife; divorce was easier for a man than a women; rape was
a serious offence, but the injured party was the father or the husband, not the violated woman
herself; women were veiled
2.
Egypt—women were recognized as legal equals to men, able to own property and slaves, to
administer and sell land, to make their own wills, to sign their own marriage contracts, and to
initiate divorce; women became queens (however, this was not the norm, because Hatshepsut
was sometimes portrayed as a man); women in Egypt were not veiled
3.
China
a.
The superior principal of yang was viewed as masculine and related to heaven, rulers,
strength, rationality, and light; whereas, yin, the lower feminine principal, was
associated with the earth, subjects, weakness, emotion, and darkness—thus, female
inferiority was permanent and embedded in the workings of the universe
b.
Men had public and political roles and women had domestic and private roles
c.
“three obediences” emphasized a woman’s subordination first to her father, then to
her husband, and finally to her sons
d.
When a baby girl was born, she was placed below the bed to show she was “lowly and
weak” and required to humble herself before others; then she was given a piece of
broken pottery to play with, signifying that her primary duty was to be industrious
e.
A few women, concubines, or widows of emperors, were able to exercise political
authority
f.
As a mother of sons, accorded honor for her role in producing the next generation of
male heirs to carry on her husband’s lineage; when her sons married she exercised
significant authority as the mother-in-law
g.
Her dowry was regarded as her own property and gave her some leverage within her
marriage
h.
Women’s roles in the production of textiles, often used to pay taxes or sell
commercially, made her labor valuable to the family economy
i.
A man’s wife was sharply distinguished from his concubines, because only his wife
could produce legitimate heirs
j.
Daoists - Featured women as priests, nuns, or reclusive mediators able to receive
cosmic truth and to use it for the benefit of others
k.
Empress Wu
I.
Commissioned the biographies of famous women
II.
Decreed that the mourning period for mothers be equal to that for fathers
III.
Ordered the Chinese character for “human being” that suggested the process
of birth flowing from one woman without a prominent male role
l.
Buddhists - Women could be monks
4.
Greece
a.
Athens
I.
No role in assemblies, councils, or juries
II.
Women had to be represented by a guardian in legal matters, and the court
proceedings would not use their name but rather “someone’s wife or mother”
III.
Aristotle “a woman is, as it were, an infertile male. She is female in fact on
account of a kind of inadequacy”—she could not produce sperm which
contained the soul of a new human being; a woman was only a receptacle for
the vital male contribution
IV.
Women’s space was separate from men and upper-class women were
restricted
V.
Girls married young but to older men
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b.
5.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Women could own personal property, but land was passed through male heirs
Sparta-- a military society to keep slaves (helots) in place
I.
All boys were removed from their families at age 7 to begin military training
II.
Women were to bear sons for Sparta and needed to be physically fit; running,
wrestling, throwing the discus and javelin, driving chariots; sometimes
competed in the nude before mixed audiences
III.
Spartan women were not secluded
IV.
Married men of their own age at around 18; trial period
V.
Divorce and remarriage were easy
VI.
Women exercised more authority in the household because they had to take
care of things when the men were off fighting
VII.
Death in childbirth was equal to death in battle
Rome
a.
b.
women were considerably freer and less oppressed than women in China
Women were often the unrecognized “power behind the throne” because of their role
in managing the household when husbands were away in the military
c.
Women could attend public entertainments
d.
Laws gave women protection against abuse
e.
Later in the empire women’s roles decline
f.
Religious ideas restricted women
I.
Since the church rejected sexuality, women were viewed as the prime
temptation and led to other misogynistic ideas
II.
Women were forbidden to preach or hold religious offices
III.
Could become nuns
C.
Sometimes women’s status depended on their social class
1.
Upper class women were more restricted in their public appearances; public veiling of upper
class women appears as early as the Babylonian Empire and is a widespread practice
2.
Lower-class women, peasants, and female slaves continued to work outside the home
Civilizations
A.
Agriculture, written language, use of metals allow the creation of civilizations
B.
Civilizations grow when people are less concerned about where their next meal comes from
C.
Civilizations spread their influence through trade and conquest
D.
When civilizations become dominant (when there are no current rivals), a period of peace and
prosperity emerges making it possible to devote time and money to the arts and sciences
E.
Why then do civilizations fall apart
1.
Get too big
2.
Citizens get restless
3.
Foreign threats
Sources of change – two main methods are trade and conquest; expansion of major religions is an effect, as
well, but they also follow trade and conquest routes
A.
Inventions of the wheel for transport/movement and iron change impact of civilizations
B.
Some civilizations are more innovative while others are more adaptive, but most cultures do both
simultaneously
1.
Whatever they invent they spread to others
2.
Whatever they borrow, the adapt for their own purposes
Human-Environmental Interaction
A.
Canals and irrigation ditches, stone-cutting, plowing, and metal-working
B.
Development of calendars and sundials, allowed humans to predict and try to control nature
C.
As civilizations developed, they were less subject to natural events
D.
As the major belief systems developed, civilizations became less interested in appeasing the gods to
protect themselves from the great unknowns and more interested in internal peace, oneness with a
great human force, or salvation; this corresponds with humans ability to figure out nature and the focus
shifts from the need for bodily protection to the desire for internal peace
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Ch 12: Cross-Cultural Exchange on the Silk Roads
I.
Long-distance trade and the silk roads network
A.
Trade networks of the Hellenistic era
1.
Rulers invested in constructing roads and bridges
2.
Large empires expanded until borders were closer
3.
Trade networks between India/Bactria in east and Mediterranean basin in west; incl. E. Africa
4.
learned about the monsoon system in Indian Ocean
B.
The silk roads
1.
Trade routes
a.
Overland trade routes linked China to Roman empire
b.
Sea lanes joined Asia, Africa, and Mediterranean basin into one network
2.
Trade goods
a.
Silk and spices traveled west
b.
Central Asia produced large horses and jade, sold in China
c.
Roman empire provided glassware, jewelry, artworks, perfumes, textiles
3.
The organization of long-distance trade
a.
Merchants of different regions handled long-distance trade in stages
b.
On the seas, long-distance trade was dominated by different empires
II.
Cultural and biological exchanges along the silk roads
A.
The spread of Buddhism and Hinduism
1.
Buddhism in central Asia and China; foreign merchants as Buddhists in China, 1st century B.C.E.
2.
Popularity of monasteries and missionaries, fifth century C.E.
3.
Buddhism and Hinduism to Southeast Asia
4.
Caste system limited the acculturation of Hinduism
B.
The spread of Christianity
1.
Christianity in the Mediterranean basin major impact by late third century C.E.
2.
Christianity in Southwest Asia follows the trade routes by second century C.E.
C.
The spread of Manichaeism; best example of religion spread on silk roads
1.
Mani and Manichaeism - Prophet Mani, created a syncretic faith by blending Christianity and
Buddhism
a.
Dualism: perceived a cosmic struggle between light and darkness, good and evil
b.
Offered means to achieve personal salvation
c.
Ascetic lifestyle and high ethical standards; Manichaeism appealed to merchants
d.
Attracted converts first in Mesopotamia and east Mediterranean region
2.
Persecuted by Sasanids and Romans but survived in central Asia
D.
The spread of epidemic disease
1.
Epidemic diseases
a.
Common epidemics in Rome and China: smallpox, measles, bubonic plague
b.
Roman empire: population dropped by a quarter from the first to tenth century C.E.
c.
China: population dropped by a quarter from the first to seventh century C.E.
2.
Effects of epidemic diseases
a.
Both Chinese and Roman economies contracted; weakened Han/Roman Empires
b.
Small regional economies emerged
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