CHAPTER 8
What Causes Us to Hold Biases Against Outgroups?
CHAPTER 8 OBJECTIVES AND OUTLINE
Chapter 8 Objectives:
As a result of reading Chapter 8 and participating in related class discussions and activities, you
should be able to:
(1) Tune into the biased ways in which individuals selectively process information;
(2) Compare and contrast ethnocentric and ethnorelative states;
(3) Identify factors that shape your stereotypic images of outgroup members;
(4) Compare the inflexible/mindless stereotyping process versus flexible/mindful
stereotyping process;
(5) Understand intergroup attribution biases and ingroup/outgroup biased principles;
(6) Look more deeply into reasons for prejudices attitudes and distriminatory actions; and
(7) Develop a strong commitment to reduce prejudice and combat racism in your everyday lives.
Chapter 8 Outline:
I. Human Perception Tendencies: Some General Principles
Introduction:
1. Perception: process the begins with selecting cues from the environment and
ends with interpreting a created pattern based on expectations (NOTE:
This is a brief description; see the textbook for actual definitions.)
2. Quick three-step process:
A. Selective attention: select cues from environment
B. Selective organization and labeling: organizing and “naming” perception, guided by
culture, language
C. Selective interpretation: attach meaning to data, including “expectations”: what we
anticipate/predict about how others will communicate
II. Biased Intergroup Filters: Ethnocentrism and Stereotypes
A. Ethnocentrism and communication
1. Ethnocentrism: views and standards of our ingroup considered more important
than any outgroups
2. Degrees of ethnocentrism:
a. Distance of indifference (low): lack sensitivity
b. Distance of avoidance (moderate): nonverbal lack of attention,
avoidance, and language switching with outgroup members
c. Distance of disparagement (high): racist jokes, hate speech
3. Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
a. Three states of ethnocentrism
i. Denial of cultural difference
ii. Defense against cultural difference
iii. Minimization of cultural difference
b. Three states in development of ethnorelatiivism
i. Acceptance of cultural difference
ii. Adaptation of cultural difference
iii. Integration of cultural difference:
B. Stereotypes and communication
1. Stereotypes: exaggerated pictures of group on basis of inflexible beliefs and
expectations
2. Overgeneralization of group without attempt to perceive individual variations.
3. Stereotype Content Model forms along two dimensions:
a. Perception of warmth: whether cooperation or competition
b. Perception of competence: whether high or low status
C. Stereotypes: We Are What We Watch
1. Media create “character types,” shape way we view dissimilar others
2. Stereotyping is inevitable
a. Inflexible stereotyping: negative stereotyping on automatic pilot
b. Flexible stereotyping: “mindfully minding our mind”—awareness
III. Marking Ingroup/Outgroup Membership Boundaries
A. Us versus them
1. Social identity theory: study of ingroup and outgroup membership
2. Intergroup communication: individuals in one group interact with another
group (or members) in terms of their group membership identification
4. Ingroup favoritism principle: positive attachments and predisposition for
norms and behaviors related to one’s group
B. Where do I fit in?
1. Membership in an ingroup is a matter of degree and variation
2. The more association with ingroup, the greater expected conformity
3. Ingroup membership provides security and inclusion
4. Ingroup member can feel like outgroup member: because he or she is
not accepted by ingroup members
C. Intergroup attribution biases
1. Attribution: explanation, meaning of why people behave as they do
2. Three biases that typically occur during intergroup encounters:
a. Fundamental attribution error: overestimate negative personality
factors to explain stranger’s negative event and underestimate
situational factors
b. Principle of negativity: emphasize negative information about
outgroup members
c. Favorable self-bias and other-derogation principle: tendency to favor
our ingroup in explaining success and to derogatory explanations
for ougroups’ successes
d. Self-effacement bias: remember our failures, attribute to lack of ability
IV. Shattered Lens: Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism
A. Prejudice: multiple explanations and functions
1. Prejudice: indiscriminate negative feelings and predispositions toward
outgroup members (but it can also mean the opposite)
2. Four explanations for development of prejudice:
a. Exploitation theory: higher status/power group restrains lower
b. Scapegoating theory: blame minority groups for one’s failures
c. Authoritarian personality approach: personality type rigidly
adheres to norms, completely accepts those in authority
d. Structural approach: institutions promote “pecking order”
3. The communication functions of prejudice
a. Ego-defense mechanism: protect ego via outgroup blame
b. Regularity: need to view own cultural values, norms, and
practices as the proper way of thinking
c. Lacking accurate cultural knowledge: ignore the unfamiliar
d. Rewards and approval: received from ingroup members
B. Prejudiced remarks … or innocent jokes?
1. In unconscious incompetence stage, mindless act still offends
2. Tools spreading prejudice by cyberbullies are available to victims to respond
C. 4 discriminatory practices
1. Discrimination: verbal and nonverbal actions that carry out prejudiced
attitudes
2. Four types of discriminatory practices
a. Isolate discrimination: intentional harm of outgroup individual
b. Small-group discrimination: (unapproved) set of individuals in
ingroup harm outgroup members
c. Direct institutional discrimination: community-prescribed
endorsement of discrimination
d. Indirect institutional discrimination: unintentional, but harmful broad
practice
D. Different types of racism
1. Racism involves three principles
a. Feelings of superiority based on biological or racial differences
b. Strong ingroup preferences, rejection of “different” outgroups
c. Doctrine that conveys special advantage to those in power
2. Examples of racism:
a. Racial profiling: intentionally or unintentionally promotes unfair
treatment
b. Perpetuating stereotypic images: majority group present selves
positively and minority group negatively
c. Hate crimes: hostility to the victim as a member of a group
E. Reducing prejudice and racism: four guidelines:
1. Be honest, confront unchecked biases and ethnocentric attitudes
2. Check for bias when you evaluate behavior of outgroup member
3. Negative images concerning outgroup will distort perceptions
4. Communicate your feelings assertively toward racist remarks
V. Intercultural Reality Check: Do-Ables
Flexible communicators will reduce prejudice and racism in the following ways:
A. Start with a clean slate: be flexible with your first best guesses
B. Use your most precious gift: your brain; be open to multiple perspectives
C. Continue learning about those around you
D. Remember, all of us are works in progress
E. Stereotyping is inevitable, but still actively engage in flexibly “minding” your own
social categorization process
CHAPTER 8 CHECK-UP
Check out the following cultural literacy questions and self-assessment questions:
Breakfast Quiz: Where are these served as typical breakfasts?
1. Warm or cold soybean milk served with a variety of condiments, including dried pork or
shrimp, preserved cabbage, scallions, soy sauce, and vinegar topped with deep fried
breadsticks.
2. Rice with sambar (lentils, spice, and vegetables), fish and rice stew, a yogurt salad, and
tropical fruit.
3. Soft boiled eggs, cereal, cheese, spreadable liver sausage, ham or other cold cuts, rolls, and
mixed bread.
Choices:
(a) Germany
(b) India
(c) Northern China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong
POP-UP ANSWERS:
1 (c) Northern China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong
2 (b) India
3. (a) Germany
NOTE: Consider your own reactions to this sample of the wide variety of breakfast foods
around the world. Could you be feeling some “ingroup favoritism” (My breakfast is
appetizing) and “outgroup derogation” (Their breakfasts are strange or even badtasting)?
Self-Assessment Quiz: Use this quiz to learn about ethnocentrism and tolerance of ambiguity.
Choose whether you tend to agree or disagree with the following statements:
1. My culture provides the best opportunity for its members to achieve their goals.
a. Agree
b. Disagree
2. I like routines and a stable environment.
a. Agree
b. Disagree
POP-UP INTERPRETATION:
1a. Strong agreement with this statement reflects a tendency toward ethnocentrism.
Check out my.blog 8.1 in the text on page 162 to take a full assessment of these two
tendencies.
POP-UP INTERPRETATION:
1b. Strong disagreement with this statement reflects a tendency away from
ethnocentrism.
Check out my.blog 8.1 in the text on page 162 to take a full assessment of these two
tendencies.
POP-UP INTERPRETATION:
2a. Strong agreement with this statement reflects a tendency toward a lower tolerance of
ambiguity.
Check out my.blog 8.1 in the text on page 162 to take a full assessment of these two
tendencies.
POP-UP INTERPRETATION:
2b. Strong disagreement with this statement reflects a tendency away from a tolerance of
ambiguity.
Check out my.blog 8.1 in the text on page 162 to take a full assessment of these two
tendencies.
CHAPTER 8 GLOSSARY-MATCHING QUIZ
Match the following five terms with their respective definitions:
a. Discrimination
b. Racism
c. Stereotype
d. Ethnocentrism
e. Prejudice
___ 1. Exaggerated pictures we make about a group of people on the basis of our inflexible
beliefs and expectations about the characteristics or behaviors of the group.
___ 2. Describes an individual’s feelings and predispositions toward outgroup members in a
pejorative or negative direction.
___ 3. Considering the views and standards of one’s own ingroup as much more important than
any outgroup’s.
___ 4. Verbal and nonverbal actions that carry out prejudiced attitudes.
___ 5. Feelings of superiority based on biological or racial differences, or both, along with strong
ingroup preferences and rejection of outgroups that are different in custom or belief.
POP-UP ANSWER:
1. c
2. e
3. d
4. a
5. b
Match the following five terms with their respective definitions:
a. Selection
b. Perception
c. Interpretation
d. Attribution
e. Organization
___ 1. The process of selecting cues from the environment, organizing them into a clear pattern
and labeling that pattern, and then interpreting that pattern.
___ 2. The explanation for, or the meaning of, why people behave as they do.
___ 3. Guided by our culture and the language we speak, grouping our perceptions into similar
objects and labeling them with a symbol or name.
___ 4. Attaching meaning to the data that we have received and grouped into a pattern; also
known as expectations.
___ 5. Picking out cues from one’s cultural landscapes, having learned to pay close attention to
the cues that are valuable in one’s culture.
POP-UP ANSWER:
1. b
2. d
3. e
4. c
5. a
Match the following five terms with their respective definitions:
a. Ingroup favoritism principle
b. Fundamental attribution error
c. Principle of negativity
d. Favorable self-bias and other-derogation principle
e. Self-effacement bias
___ 1. To place more emphasis on negative information concerning outgroup members.
___ 2. Remembering one’s failures more and attributing those failures to one’s lack of ability.
___ 3. Positive attachment to and predisposition for norms and behaviors that are related to one’s
group.
___ 4. Attributing one’s positive events to positive dispositional factors and creating derogatory
explanations for outgroup successes. (“I received an A on the exam because I’m smart
but those people received As and they must have cheated.”)
___ 5. Overestimating negative personality factors in explaining a stranger’s negative event and
underestimating situational factors. (“That stranger got in a car crash. He must have
been drunk; it couldn’t have had anything to do with the slippery roads or that the light
wasn’t working.”)
POP-UP ANSWER:
1. c
2. e
3. a
4. d
5. b
CHAPTER 8 REVIEW QUIZ
Multiple Choice: Select and click the BEST ANSWER from the choices available.
1. _______________ derives from two Greek words, meaning “one’s own ethnic or cultural
group” and “one’s group should be looked upon as the center of the world.”
a. Fundamental attribution error
b. Prejudice
c. Discrimination
d. Ethnocentrism
POP-UP ANSWER:
d. Ethnocentrism (p. 161)
2. During the ____________ part of the perception process, the cues that are considered valuable
in one’s culture are what one pays closer attention to.
a. perception
b. selection
c. attribution
d. organization
POP-UP ANSWER:
b. selection (p. 160)
3. When three individuals in the United States commit a hate crime against a person due to that
person’s sexual orientation, they are engaging in what kind of discrimination?
a. Direct institutional
b. Indirect institutional
c. Small-group
d. Isolate
POP-UP ANSWER:
c. Small-group (p. 174)
4. Harve, who is from Belgium, has feelings of hostility toward the Dutch, and tends to have
negative views of Dutch people’s behaviors and characteristics, although he has never taken
any harmful action against them. He is __________ toward the Dutch but has not practiced
______________ against them.
a. prejudiced; discrimination
b. racist; prejudice
c. prejudiced; attribution
d. stereotyping; prejudice
POP-UP ANSWER:
a. prejudiced; discrimination (pp. 171 and 174)
This one is difficult, but is designed to teach you that prejudice is an inner attitude and
discrimination is outward action or behavior.
5. Hadiya has been walking down the street and been the recipient of racist jokes and hate-filled
remarks. She is the victim of what degree of ethnocentrism?
a. Distance of indifference
b. Distance of avoidance
c. Distance of disparagement
d. Distance of violence
POP-UP ANSWER:
c. Distance of disparagement (p. 164)
6. Hajna believes that her native Hungarian customs, beliefs, and ways of doing things are
superior to other cultures. Hajna is engaging in ________________.
a. disparagement
b. indifference
c. ethnocentrism
d. attribution
POP-UP ANSWER:
c. ethnocentrism (p. 161)
7. Harriet points to a positive ____________ attribution (her friendliness), as the reason for her
job promotion, and to a(n) _____________ attribution (he’s lucky) as the reason for his job
promotion.
a. dispositional or personality; situational
b. situational; dispositional or personality
c. personal; social
d. social; personal
POP-UP ANSWER:
a. dispositional or personality; situational (p. 170)
8. The ___________________ of the development of prejudice suggests that prejudiced
individuals believe that they are victims of society, and so blame a minority group for their
plight.
a. exploitation theory
b. scapegoating theory
c. authoritarian personality approach
d. structural approach
POP-UP ANSWER:
b. scapegoating theory (p. 171)
9. Helga is from the Netherlands and believes her nation is highly competitive with Norway. So,
according to the Stereotype Content Model, the perception of ___________ dimension
between the Netherlands and Norway is low.
a. ethnocentrism
b. competition
c. competence
d. warmth
POP-UP ANSWER:
d. warmth (p. 166)
10. When a minority coworker was laid off, Hakeem decided that it was much more likely due to
the coworker’s “laziness” and not the fact that there had been a significant drop in customer
orders. Hakeem is engaging in which attribution error?
a. Fundamental attribution error
b. Self-effacement bias
c. Principle of negativity
d. Favorable self-bias and other-derogation principle
POP-UP ANSWER:
a. Fundamental attribution error (p. 170)
True/False: In order to identify the best answer, consider whether each statement is true (i.e.,
accurate) or false (i.e., inaccurate). Click either “a” for “True” or “b” for “False.”
1. If we are mindful, we can stop stereotyping.
a. True
b. False
POP-UP ANSWER:
b. False (It is inevitable that we stereotype, but we can engage in a mindful process of
loose stereotyping.) (p. 167)
2. Prejudice relates to attitude and discrimination relates to action or behavior.
a. True
b. False
POP-UP ANSWER:
a. True (pp. 171 and 174)
3. When we make interpretations, we attach meaning to the data we receive.
a. True
b. False
POP-UP ANSWER:
a. True (p. 160)
4. When Hamish feels negative or hostile feelings toward outgroup members but takes no action,
he is engaging in small-group discrimination.
a. True
b. False
POP-UP ANSWER:
b. False (p. 174)
5. Our perceptions of others are usually highly subjective, selective, and biased.
a. True
b. False
POP-UP ANSWER:
a. True (p. 161)
CHAPTER 8 INTERCULTURAL WEB SURFING
Check out the following Internet site and other resources that are relevant to this chapter:
Read more about the Intercultural Tour “Chink” controversy at:
http://www.chinkssteaks.com
Strangers. This short film is inspirational and relevant to stereotypes and perceptions.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RpjHSiQLPmA
Moon walking bear is a clip about perception.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=47LCLoidJh4&feature=player_embedded
Susan Boyle’s debut on Britain’s Got Talent.
http://talent.itv.com/2009/videos/video/item_200081.html
Wes Kim’s classic short film about the choices we make … without thinking.
http://www.mediathatmattersfest.org/films/vision_test
Films:
Crossing Over (2009). A drama about several individuals living in Los Angeles and struggling to
attain U.S. citizenship. The film deals with the border, document fraud, the asylum and green
card process, work-site enforcement, and also the clash of cultures.
Boys Don’t Cry (1999). The true story of the life of Teena Brandon. Teena was a transgendered
(genetically female, emotionally male) youth who preferred life in her male identity as Brandon
Teena. Brandon moves to Nebraska, makes friends, and finds a girlfriend. When Brandon's best
friends make this discovery, his life eventually is ripped apart by betrayal, humiliation, rape, and
ultimately murder.
Book:
Michael Lewis (2006). The Blind Side: The Evolution of a Game. New York: W. W. Norton &
Company. This book explores the game of football, but more important, the amazing story of
U.S. football player Michael Ohr.
CHAPTER 8 INTERCULTURAL TOUR
Check out the following intercultural scenario:
A NEWS STORY: TO EAT STEAK OR NOT?*
Susannah Park, a Korean American, was eating lunch with some friends. They struck up a
conversation about current events and her friend mentioned a restaurant in Wissinoming, PA,
called “Chink’s.” Opened in 1949 by the late Samuel “Chink” Sherman, the steak shop has
become a neighborhood legend. Chink’s Steaks was voted Best of Philly for cheesesteaks by
Philly Magazine in 2002. Joseph Groh is the current owner of Chink’s Steaks.
Susannah Park, however, was horrified. She called the restaurant owner and requested that he
consider changing the name of the shop because “having a restaurant with that name ... is telling
the world that ‘chink’ is an appropriate term and that it’s not a racial slur,” Park said. Joseph
Groh refused. “The restaurant has been here fifty-five years and no one has ever questioned it,”
said Groh. “Besides, everybody is welcome here! I know there are lots of racist people in the
world, but I’m not one of them.”
Sam Sherman’s widow, Mildred Sherman, says that Sam got the nickname “Chink” when he was
six, because of his slanty eyes. Many people didn’t learn of his real name until they attended his
funeral in 1997. Sherman said the nickname is etched on her husband’s gravestone. She called
the controversy “ridiculous.” “We are Jewish people. We are far from racists. We have Chinese
customers!” Sherman claimed. “My husband was well-loved by everybody in this town.”
Park thinks that the restaurant name hasn’t become a controversy because it is in a neighborhood
that is largely white and because the Asian community is not very outspoken. She hopes bringing
attention to this will help educate people. The restaurant name is just “another reminder of how
much cultural insensitivity there still is around us,” she said.
What should Susannah Park do?
*Source: Adapted from a news story written by Myung Oak Kim (2004, January 9). Contact:
kimm@phillynews.com.
REFLECTION QUESTIONS:
1. Can you understand why Park was upset about a restaurant named “Chink’s”?
2. Can you understand why both Groh and Sherman were upset about Park’s request?
3. Select a number on a scale from 1 to 10, with 1 = strongly disagree and 10 = strongly agree, to
indicate whether you believe that Groh should change his restaurant’s name.
4. If the Philly steakhouse was given a new name such as “Honky’s,” “Jew Boy’s,” “Dyke’s,”
“Faggot’s,” “Nigger’s,” “Wetback’s,” or “Redskin’s,” would you have any objections to the
use of any of the terms? Would you still eat steak there?
FURTHER APPLICATION PROBES
Let’s apply some concepts from Chapter 8 to the scenario.
1. Which of the following “communicative distances” do the owner’s comments about the
controversy being “ridiculous” reflect?
a. Distance of indifference
b. Distance of avoidance
c. Distance of disparagement
POP-UP ANSWER:
The answer here is that it may depend on the receiver of the message. Although it
appears that the owners believed that the name was not disparaging, for Park, the use of
the name felt like disparagement (racist jokes or hate-filled speech used to downgrade
outgroup members).
2. Which of the following types of discrimination does the scenario reflect?
a. Isolate
b. Small-group
c. Indirect institutional
d. Direct institutional
POP-UP ANSWER:
c. Indirect institutional (p. 175) (Institutions such as business licensing agencies allowed
this restaurant’s name to occur; this was probably unintentional discrimination on
the part of the institution.)
3. Chapter 8 gave some examples of racism. Which type of racism does this scenario reflect?
a. Racial profiling
b Perpetuating stereotypic images
c Hate crimes
POP-UP ANSWER:
b. Perpetuating stereotypic images (p. 176)
4. To reduce prejudice and discrimination, which should Park do?
a. Realize that we are all works in progress and wait for change.
b. Speak up assertively.
POP-UP ANSWER:
b. Speak up assertively (see “Reducing Prejudice and Racism” on p. 177). While it is
true that all individuals are works in progress, this public discrimination or insensitivity
should be addressed.
CHAPTER 8 CLASS HANDOUTS
Note: Your instructor may ask you to download, print out, and/or e-mail the following
class handouts for this chapter:
A CRITICAL INCIDENT: “FRIENDLY TEASING OR …?
INTERACTIVE PROBES FOR “FRIENDLY TEASING OR …?
A CRITICAL INCIDENT: FRIENDLY TEASING OR VERBAL HARASSMENT?
A few months ago Jessica Martinez had just graduated from a well-respected, local university
with a degree in mass communications. She had several offers, but the most exciting, not to
mention the one closest to home, was with TechnoloComm. She was hired in the human
resources office to work on internal newsletters and publicity.
Everything went well for the first week or two, and then something happened that made her
question her job and the organization. It was last Monday morning, and she joined a conversation
with her coworkers, Peter and Alex. Peter and Alex were working together on other projects. So,
when she saw them in the coffee room, she thought this was a great chance to get to know them.
First Episode: "Hi, Jessica," said Peter enthusiastically. "We were just talking about the big
street party last weekend." "Yeah," chimed in Alex. " I was really frustrated because I couldn’t
get into my neighborhood. Did you experience the same problem?" After pausing, he added, "I
guess not, since you probably don't live on the north side of town."
"Yeah, you must live in the el barrio, right?" questioned Peter, making sure to try to give a Latin
twist to el barrio. Jessica felt her face flush; she nodded slightly, and faked a laugh. Jessica lived
with her family in a traditionally Hispanic area of town and would never want to live anywhere
else. Her neighborhood was home. It was where she had grown up and where she knew
everyone.
Before she could think of a good response, the men headed back to their desks. Jessica's gut
reaction was: "Why do they assume I live in the barrio? I could live anywhere; I just don't want
to and my family doesn't want to either." After thinking about the conversation for a while,
though, she decided to try to forget it, thinking, "It might be a verbal misunderstanding; I just
need to focus on my own job."
Second Episode: A week later, the three of them bumped into each other again in the coffee room
on a Monday morning. Peter asked "Hey, guys, how was your weekend?" Alex replied, "Great! I
got together with my family and had a surf and turf barbecue." Jessica responded: "Sounds
yummy. I love barbecue!" Peter commented, "I'm surprised to hear that."
With a surprising and innocent tone, Jessica asked: "Why's that?" Peter replied: "Well, you
know, I've always heard that Hispanics don't like to barbecue."
Jessica responded with an irritated voice, "And, pray tell, why not?" "Well," Peter said, "because
the beans fall through the grill!" At this point, both Peter and Alex started laughing as Jessica
responded with total disgust, "You guys are totally hopeless!" and she walked away with her
heart pounding.
Source: Adapted from: Mary Meares and John Oetzel (2004), Chapter 31: “A Case of Mistreatment at
Work?” In J. Keyton and P. Shockley-Zalabak (Eds.) Case Studies for Organizational Communication.
Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury.
NAME: _______________________________
INTERACTIVE PROBES FOR
“FRIENDLY TEASING OR VERBAL HARASSMENT?
(Ask yourself and probe your classmates' reactions)
1. What happened in this critical incident? How would you analyze the case? To what extent can
you relate to Jessica's experience?
2. In both conversations, were they merely friendly teasing or casual jokes? Were both episodes
involving language misunderstandings?
3. On a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 = strongly disagree and 10 = strongly agree, how would you rate
the first episode as a verbal harassment episode? How so?
4. On a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 = strongly disagree and 10 = strongly agree, how would you rate
the second episode as a verbal harassment episode? How so?
5. Given what you know about connotative meanings and language pragmatic rules, what would
you say to Peter, Alex, and Jessica?