ESJ Theory
International Step by Step Association
stereotypes
Thoughts
+ feelings
prejudices
Internalized
oppression
discrimination
oppression
Researchas suggest that
prejudices and stereotypes
are not limited to a few pathological
or misguided individuals
 They are outgrowths of normal
human functioning,
 all people are susceptible to one
extent or another

Homo Stereotypus
animal predisposed to prejudice, stereotyping,
and discrimination,
but
with the capacity to overcome these biases if
motivated to do so
(Blair, 2002; Fiske, 2000; Monteith & Voils, 2001).
Stereotypes are defined as
generalizations,
 schematic and rigid perceptions
attributed to the members of a certain
group - transferred and applied rigidly
to every single member of the given
group.

Stereotypes are also described as:

Irrational generalizations/etiquettes

Expression and rationalization of
prejudices

Mental shortcuts applied when people are busy or
distracted (Gilbert & Hixon, 1991).
Prejudices are defined as
specific types of attitudes characterized by a
relatively permanent, subjective position
toward certain entities
 judgments that:
- Are not based on factual or logical
argumentation
- Are resilient to change
- Are characterized by a strong emotional
component

Prejudice is an attitude characterized
by three basic components:

Cognitive (what we think, opinions)

Emotional (what we feel, and is related to
our thinking)

Connotative (what we do as a result of our
thinking and feelings
The roots of prejudices and
stereotypes
Personality factors
"authoritarian personality"





rigid thinkers
obey authority
see the world as black and white
enforce strict adherence to social rules and
hierarchies
right-wing and social dominance orientation
The Authoritarian Personality, Adorno(1950)
Cognitive factors
The Nature of Prejudice, Gordon Allport (1954)
Categorical Thinking

Prejudice/stereotypes are partly an outgrowth of normal
human functioning although they have emotional, social,
economic, and historic dimensions

The human mind must think with the aid of cathegories

Categories are the basis for normal prejudgment.
We need to keep in mind that
Social categories form an
indispensable part of human
thought,
but because attributes such as
race, sex, and age lie along a
continuum, social labels are
never more than
approximations.
intriguing and important consequence
of categorical thinking
Assimilation and Contrast



tendency to distort perceptions
minimizing differences within categories
("assimilation")
exaggerating differences between categories
("contrast")
It means that



differences within groups will tend to be
minimized
differences between groups will tend to be
exaggerated
Distortion is highly resistant to change
DIE MODEL, Milton Benett
potential
D
D - description
I - Interpretation
E - Evaluation
I
E
DISCRIMINATION
Social factors
1. Outgroup Homogeneity effect

when it comes to attitudes, values,
personality traits, and other characteristics,
people tend to see outgroup members as
more alike than ingroup members
As a result

Outgroup members are at risk of being seen as
interchangeable or expendable

ingroup appears to have a diverse assortment of
individuals, and an outgroup appears relatively

The perception of sameness holds true regardless of
whether the outgroup is another race, religion, nationality,
college major, or other naturally occurring group
(Linville, 1998)
EXPLANATIONS



People usually have more contact with ingroup
members
They tend to organize and recall information about
ingroups in terms of persons rather than abstract
characteristics (Ostrom, Carpenter, Sedikides, & Li,
1993; Park & Judd, 1990).
They are more motivated to make distinctions
among ingroup members with whom they will have
future contact
Tajfel: the "minimal group procedure”
an experimental technique



groups formed on the basis of almost any
distinction(even on the basis of minimal
information without knowing each other)
are prone to ingroup bias.
people tend to see their own group as
superior to other groups
they seek to maintain an advantage over
other groups
"implicit egotism"
unconscious preference for
things associated with the selfconcept and identity
(Pelham)
2. Causal Attributions


The way how ingroup and outgroup
members explain each other's behavior
These explanations, are both a symptom and
source of prejudice.
people often make
uncharitable attributions
for the behavior of
outgroup members
They do this in at least
three ways:
a) Just-World Attribution in an Unjust
World
causal attributions implicitly follow a
"just world" ideology that assumes
people get what they deserve and
deserve what they get (Lerner, 1980;
Montada & Lerner, 1998).
b) The Fundamental Attribution Error
general tendency to
attribute behavior to
dispositional
causes(Ross, 1977).
c) The Ultimate Attribution Error

(1)
(2)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
ingroup members
attribute negative outgroup behavior to dispositional
causes (more than they would for identical ingroup
behavior),
attribute positive outgroup behavior to one or more
of the following causes:
a fluke or exceptional case,
luck or special advantage,
high motivation and effort, and
situational factors.
RESULT
makes it virtually impossible for outgroup
members to break free of prejudice
against them, because their positive
actions are explained away while their
failures and shortcomings are used
against them.
Motivational factors
Research indicates
when people experience a drop
in self-esteem, they become
more likely to express prejudice
“Social identity theory,"
Tajfel
people maintain their self-esteem in part by
identifying with groups and believing that the
groups they belong to are better than other
groups
(Tajfel, 1981; Tajfel & Turner, 1986).
Function of Stereotypes and
Prejudices
1.
Giving the meaning and understanding
to the world around us

“fills out the emptiness”,
completes insufficient information
provides
the
feeling
of
certainty,
predictability and clarity


2. Valuing the group we belong to
"Ultimately, many forms of discrimination and
bias may develop not because outgroups are
hated, but because positive emotions such
as admiration, sympathy, and trust are
reserved for the ingroup." Marilyn Brewer (1999, p. 438)
3. Valuing other groups,
their characteristics and their ways
of functioning
4. Rationalizating discrimination
against the members of other
groups
Process of Developing Stereotypes and
Prejudices proceeds in three steps:
1.
2.
3.
Creation of “discernible” categories
Creation of incorrect generalizations
about the whole group
Behaving toward the members of a
certain group in accordance with
generalized views (discrimination).
IMPORTANT

Awareness about the differences and
process of categorization and generalization
are natural cognitive processes

Developing a negative attitude/relation
toward the ones who are different is not part
of natural cognitive functioning
Effects of Stereotypes and
Prejudices
Self-fulfilling Prophecies
3 steps



An individual or entire group is labeled
We begin to behave in accordance with the
label that was attributed. Our behavior could
be very explicit or implicit
That individual/group begins to behave in
accordance with the label which only
asserts our original label and strengthens
our opinion that all along we were right.
The Mechanism “Blame the Victim”
(Ryan, 1976)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Problem and the population stricken by it are
defined
Value systems, culture and typical behaviors of the
population with the problem and the one without it
are compared, usually through stereotyping
Cause for the problem is placed within the
differences between the population with problem
and the one without it
Implementation of actions aimed at changing the
“problem” population.
This mechanism

place the root of social problems in the
groups suffering instead of placing the
root of these problems within a system
that is oppressive in various ways and
that creates unequal opportunities and
possibilities for different groups.
This mechanism


actually serves to reinforce the prejudices
and rationalize discrimination, i.e. unequal
treatment of different groups.
is often the very essence of many
interventions aimed at vulnerable groups, like
actions aimed at changing the characteristics
of at risk groups rather than changing the
circumstances causing these groups to be
vulnerable and treated unequally.
5 steps from gossiping to genocide
Olport
1. Gossiping and stereotyping
2. Social distance
3. Discrimination
4. Physical attack
5. Genocide
What can we do trough ESJ?
Starting points

Prejudices and stereotypes are thinking patterns that are
acquired, and are explicitly or implicitly transmitted
through the institutional system

While prejudices and stereotypes are typically learned
passively, unlearning them must be done actively

Every one of us carries his/her own “baggage of
stereotypes and prejudices”

Becoming aware of one’s own prejudices and stereotypes
represents a necessary step in overcoming/eliminating
them
What can we do trough ESJ?
Starting points

Observing objectively, which is quite different
from interpreting and evaluating, is the first step
forward

For the beginning, it is enough to abstain from
acting in accordance with prejudices, to create
the space for careful and objective observation
of oneself and others.
Deconstruction of DIE MODEL
ASSUMPTIONS
HYPOTHESIS
ASSUMPTIONS
HYPOTHESIS
ASSUMPTIONS
HYPOTHESIS
ASSUMPTIONS
HYPOTHESIS
D
I
E
Changing is always
difficult and incremental
Requires commitment