Guided Reading Questions:
1. What are the issues involved in using “civilization” as an organizing principle in world history?
Explain the main indicators of civilization.
“Civilization” = an ambiguous term; “uncivilized” often misused.
1.
Cities – administrative centers
2.
Political system with defined territory
3.
Specialized labor / roles, beyond agriculture
4.
Status distinctions
5.
Permanent records kept
6.
Long-distance trade
7.
Scientific / artistic advances
2. For the Paleolithic era discuss hunting / foraging, use of tools and fire, and existence in bands.
Paleolithic = Old Stone Age. The Stone Age associated with the development of humans
Stone Age peoples were foragers (hunters and food-gatherers).

Developed a variety of tools and learned to use fire – cooking o Clay cooking pots have been discovered

Lived in small bands. Highly mobile – had to move when food supply was exhausted.
3. Explain the Neolithic Revolution. What where the main changes? Where did this take place?
How did the Neolithic Revolution relate to technological changes and affect gender relations?
8000 BCE Climate change

domestication of plants / animals in some places. More people moved from hunting / gathering to farming

Led to population growth
Shift from hunting / gathering and foraging to agriculture that developed during Stone Age; agriculture and new stone tools arose together.

“Neolithic” (New Stone Age)
 8000– 2000 BCE. 8000 BCE = defining date for a new period in history
 “Agricultural Revolutions” = might be a better phrase than Neolithic o Agriculture was main part of the change; occurred in various parts of the world o Domestication of animals for food occurred in some places too o Took place over 100s of generations

Transition to agriculture occurred first in Middle East and then in other regions

Women were main gatherers of wild plant food; probably played large role in transition to farming. o Heavy work

men
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4. How did the Neolithic Revolution connect with the domestication of animals? How did animal domestication relate to agriculture?
Animal domestication also spread during these millennia.

2600 BCE, ox-drawn wooden plows used in central Europe – to till heavier soils o When cattle were yoked to plows, they became essential to grain production.. Animal droppings used for fertilizer.

In the Americas, few species of wild animals became domesticated. Domesticated species from the Eastern Hemisphere could not spread to the Americas
5. Where did pastoralism predominate?
Arid parts of Africa and Central Asia

2500 BCE: Sahara maximum dryness

pastoralists replaced farmers, who migrated south.
 Moving herds made pastoralists as mobile as foragers
6. Why did the Agricultural Revolutions occur? Connection to climate? Why did peoples in what parts of the world not take up farming?
Climate change / ecological crisis

shift from hunting / gathering to farming and pastoralism

6000 – 2000 BCE temperate lands warmed up – the era when people in many parts of the world adopted agriculture. o Possible shortages of wild foods:
 Dryness or population growth

Grasslands

forests, reducing wild foods
Australia, Amerindians, southern Africa, northern Eurasia remained hunters / gathers.

Wild food remained abundant. People continued to rely on hunting and gathering.
7. Describe life in Neolithic communities. Spread of agriculture; society and religion; towns; examples of pottery, woven textiles, and metallurgy
Population increased & led to changes in social and cultural life.
Due to a possible ecological crisis, farmers / pastoralists may not have had a higher standard of living than foragers.

Farmers could store food (might not starve), but diet was less varied and nutritious than foragers.

But food surpluses might have given farming an advantage over foraging: population growth.
Organization was based on kinship and marriage – nuclear families / clans

Could be matrilineal or patrilineal
Religion reflected connection to nature.

Pastoralists – tended to worship a sky god

Farmers – tended to worship mother earth god
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“Neolithic Goddess.”
Found modern-day Turkey – many versions

Pregnant / supported by twin leopards

Probably represented fertility and power over nature
In some areas farming villages grew into densely populated towns with trade and craft specialization.

Bigger dwellings / ceremonial buildings o Artisans developed in certain towns

Fine pottery

Woolen cloth

Metalworking

Late Neolithic period o Copper, lead, silver, gold

easy to work. Largely ceremonial. Did not replace stone tools yet. Symbols of status and power.
8. Examine carefully the maps on pages 10 and 14. Summarize the main ideas of the maps.
Agricultural Revolution developed in many different parts of the world starting about 8000 BCE

Pastoralism / hunting dominated in land less suited for farming
Earliest complex societies arose in river valleys, starting in 4 th
millennium BCE.
9. Describe the geography setting and location of Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia – “Land between the rivers” (Tigris and Euphrates). Rivers central to civilization in region.
Arid region – River flooding was unpredictable.
On map on p. 17, locate:

Mesopotamia
 “Fertile Crescent,”

Persian Gulf,

Arabian Desert

Geography made invasion easy
10. Explain the basic features of Mesopotamian culture, state, economy, and social structure.
Note: the material is not presented in the section according to these themes. As you read, think about how information might be reorganized to fit into these three categories.
A. Culture
Sumerians – 5000 – 4000 BCE

Southern Mesopotamia – created framework for Mesopotamian culture:
Temples for deities in cities

Gods were feared; reflected forces of nature. Needed appeasement

Ziggurat – most visible part of temple.
Scientific / technological development:
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
Writing – cuneiform . Many symbols to learn; few were literate

Wheeled carts

Bronze – weapons and tools. Metals had to be imported o Bronze Age – bronze became primary metal for tools

Discoveries: Mathematics & astronomy
B. State
Villages and cities predominated in Mesopotamia. City-states mostly evolved from villages.
Irrigation systems – canals & dams. Examples of projects that required coordinated efforts – large #s of organized people.
Government institutions
 Temple and king’s palace – two main centers of power o Leading priests played large political and economic roles.
 Gradually became dependent on the king o King

Bureaucracy of administrators developed under king

Babylon – Largest and most important city in Mesopotamia

Hammurabi was one of most famous Babylonian kings o Created Law Code of Hammurabi : severe punishments

Powerful states – armies. 2,000 BCE – horses appeared in western Asia

chariots.
C. Economy

There was a need for raw materials in Mesopotamia o Prompted conquest and long-distance trade

Merchants were mainly employed by priests and kings
D. Social Structure
Urban civilizations (cities) develop social classes: Rise of cities, specialization of labor, centralized power, written records

set some above others.
Three main social classes in Babylonia – reflected in Hammurabi’s Law Code
1) Free land owners: Royalty, priests, merchants, some artisans….
2) Dependent farmers / dependent artisans,
3) Slaves – captives / debtors. Slavery not as widespread as it would be in Greece / Rome o Hammurabi’s Law Code: penalties varied with social class. Lowest got most severe punishments.
Gender –
Women may have lost standing with shift from hunting / gathering to agriculture

Women had provided food from gathering activities – highly valued work.
 Mesopotamia – agriculture require heavy, physical work; surplus food allowed families to have more children.

Status of women declined over time – laws came to favor rights of husbands.
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11. Describe the geography and climate of the Nile River Valley region.

Located at intersection of Africa and Asia

Natural isolation – surrounding deserts and marshy seacoast -- protected

Material self-sufficiency – natural resources

Trade and communication
 “Upper” and “Lower” Egypt

Regularity of flooding & agriculture

Due to climate changes in the Sahara

migration to the Nile Valley
12. Explain the basic features of Egyptian culture, state, economy, and social structure.
A. Culture
Deities connected with nature – polytheism (belief in many gods)
Pharaoh – divine; chief priest of Egypt
Much wealth spent on religion / building temples
Strong belief in afterlife

Book of the Dead – contained rituals to ensure safe passage

Mummification
Advances in medicine, math, engineering, astronomy
B. State
Unified early in history
Dynasties developed – centralized political power

impressive cultural achievements
Pharaoh (King) – central figure of state. Believed to be divine. Absolute power.

Pyramids – royal tombs. Construction with stone tools; bronze was expensive and rare. o Many available workers.

Bureaucrats ran country / collected taxes o Administrators were literate – hieroglyphics
 record keeping

System of pictorial symbols

Used for record keeping and inscriptions

Literacy confined to small group of scribes and administrators – long study required to master hieroglyphics

Also used for Egyptian literature o papyrus (writing material)
 Gov’t had a monopoly over long-distance trade & controlled key sectors of economy
 Lack many real cities – were extensions of palace and central government o Towns and cities did exist, but most people lived in villages and were farmers.
C. Economy
Nile River

trade, communication, agriculture
D. Social Structure
No formal class structure emerged, but there were differences in wealth

King / high-ranking officials

Lower-level officials, priests, professionals, wealthy farmers
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Culture
Environment
Technology
Religion
State
Environment
Rulers
Unification

Peasants – vast majority of people
Women were subordinate to men, but

Love poetry shows lovers addressing each other as equals / emotions of romantic love

Law – could own property, inherit from parents
 Some females priests and female deities
13. Create a chart comparing the culture, state, economy, and social structure of Mesopotamia and Egypt
Mesopotamia Egypt
Open to migration and invasion; lacked natural resources
Writing: Cuneiform; scribes
Stone and bronze tools used – metals were imported. Metals not generally available – reserved for the elite.
Knowledge about metallurgy, mathematics, astronomy, & engineering.
Monumental building projects: Ziggurats
Religion

Temple worship key; ziggurats.
Polytheistic (belief in many gods)

Gods embodied natural forces.

Tried to appease harsh deities so that they would not bring destruction.

Belief in afterlife but not necessarily a positive life to come. Reflected in Epic of Gilgamesh.
Developed in Fertile Crescent, along Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers. Rainfall insufficient for agriculture; depended on river for irrigation.
Tigris and Euphrates

unpredictable floods; source of concern

need for irrigation. State had to organize this.
Kings & bureaucracy
Not unified early in history
A land of cities
Natural isolation; had natural resources

unique culture; little to do with other civilizations.
Settlers did periodically arrive, though.
Writing: Hieroglyphics; papyrus; literature – many genres.
Stone tools for construction – bronze was expensive and rare. Metals not generally available
– reserved for the elite.
Knowledge about medicine, mathematics, astronomy, & engineering.
Monumental building projects: Pyramids
Religion

Divine monarch. Much wealth
 religion. Polytheistic (belief in many gods).

Gods embodied natural forces.

Trusted deities that they believed brought order and prosperity

Belief in afterlife – a possible blessed existence for the righteous.

Mummification; pyramids. Egyptian
Book of the Dead.
Developed along Nile River Valley. Rainfall insufficient for agriculture; depended on river for irrigation.
Nile flooded predictably for agriculture. Eagerly anticipated; not destruction with flooding.
Pharaoh – considered divine

central to the state.
Administrators were literate – record keeping.
Unified early in history
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Economy
Social
Structure
Social hierarchy
Impact of urbanization on social structure
Women
Agriculture
Trade funded by priests and kings, but controlled by merchants
1. Free land-owners: King, priests, merchants….

Kings not normally considered divine, but still dominated religious institutions.
2. Dependent farmers / artisans
3. Slaves
A more urban society than Egypt and thus more socially stratified: sharp social divisions – seen in class-based penalties in Law Code of Hammurabi
Women had fewer rights than in Egypt

loss of rights in 2 nd millennium

May have stemmed from a more urban and more social stratification.
Agriculture
Gov’t 
monopoly over key sections of economy
& controlled long-distance trade
Pharaoh – claimed divine origins & central to welfare of entire country & held religious authority over priests.
Influential / wealthy priests; Dependent peasants
Elite classes

wealth for expensive mummification
A less urban and less stratified society than
Mesopotamia.
Women had more rights and social freedoms than in Mesopotamia

Shown in writing and pictures
14. Describe the geography and environment in which the Indus Valley Civilization developed.
Civilization developed along Indus River, modern-day Pakistan
River and monsoon rain flooding

two crops a year.
15. Explain the basic features of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro’s culture, state, economy, and social structure (Indus Valley Civilization)
A. Culture
 Metals widely available – more than in Mesopotamia  used for tools / every day items and not just jewelry / ornamentation

Writing system
B. State

Many sites existed; best know two were the cities Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro o Advanced cities: 2600-1900 BCE

Uniform construction, standardized street girds, drainpipes for wastewater, irrigation, large public buildings

suggest a strong central government
C. Economy

Widespread trading contacts o Access to metals and other resources from Iran & Afghanistan, and India o Within Indus Valley, goods moved on rivers
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
Long-distance trade: Indus Valley to Mesopotamia o Indus Valley merchants served as middlemen, shipping goods to the Persian Gulf
D. Social Structure

Possible hereditary occupations with priests predominating
Cities were abandoned around 1900 BCE

Ecological disaster / climate change or natural disasters – might possibly have brought civilization to an end.
Guided Reading Questions:
1. Describe the environment / geography in which the Shang Dynasty developed. How did environment / geography affect this civilization?
8000 BCE – first Neolithic cultures. Yellow River (Huang He) – agriculture
China is relatively isolated: Mountains, deserts, Pacific Ocean

Trade did occur with India and Central Asia
Mountains make overland travel difficult

Yellow and Yangzi Rivers allowed for east-west travel
Different environment in north and south China, and different land use, crops, organization of labor

Monsoons bring rainfall to south in summer

agriculture; rainfall less regular in north o Civilization developed in north, along Yellow River (Huang He) – irrigation. Demanding environment – unpredictable river floods


Technologies (canals / irrigation), political traditions, religious views that became hallmarks of Chinese civilization

Most productive land in eastern river valleys; natural resource in North China
Plain

Grains grew in the north; rice in the south o Agriculture required coordinated efforts of large numbers of people
2. Explain the basic features of Shang culture, state, and social structure.
A. Culture
Bronze Age: 2000 BCE – 1000 years after Middle East
 Bronze = sign of status / authority; Bronze vessels used for offerings to ancestors’ spirits
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Written records – oracle bones . Used to obtain information from ancestors / gods. Mainly gave information about king, court, and religion

Shang writing system (found on oracle bones) = ancestor of much of modern-day writing systems in East Asia
B. State
King was seen as the key link between Heaven and earth. Had access to divine power to bring prosperity and protection – this belief lasted throughout much of Chinese history

an effective rationale for authoritarian rule.

Cities: Centers of politics / nobility / religion: Palaces, administrative buildings, shrines o Commoners lived in villages outside cities
C. Social Structure
King
Warrior elite: bronze weapons, chariots (from Western Asia)
Peasants
Slaves
3. Read “Divination in Ancient Societies,” pages 44-45. Write down the main ideas (skip the Celts)
Many ancient peoples believe gods controlled nature / shaped destinies. People developed divination techniques to learn the will of the gods.

Shang elite – oracle bones

Mesopotamia – sacrificed animal organs; astrology

Greeks – Oracles
This was a form of technology known only to a class of experts  their special knowledge gave them high status in society.
4. The Zhou Dynasty – Explain the following:
A. Mandate of Heaven,
B. Metallurgy advances made during the end of the Zhou.
Zhou = Followed Shang Dynasty
Mandate of Heaven
 Monarch was seen as the “Son of Heaven” – the right (mandate) to rule came from Heaven (the gods)

Prosperous times were seen as evidence that Heaven was giving the king a mandate to rule

Troubled times (famine, floods, invasion) were seen as evidence that Heaven no longer supported the king. Used as a justification for rebellion o The concept, which connected religion and politics, served as the foundation of Chinese political thought for 3000 years.
Technological advances during the end of the Zhou

Iron began to replace bronze

first steel produced in world
5. Explain the main features of Confucianism and Daoism.
Last centuries of the Zhou – political fragmentation and warfare, but also great cultural achievements.
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
Confucianism and Daoism were the two most influential philosophies in Chinese civilization.
Confucianism

Confucius – a philosopher; not a religious teacher or priest. Not concerned with religion.

Achieve harmony in society through rituals, proper behavior, proper interactions with others
 Goal was to make society function smoothly at every level

A hierarchy of relationships
 Children expected to be “filial” – respectful of parents (called “ filial piety
”)

Confucianism became dominant political philosophy and the core of the educational system for government officials
Daoism

Founded by Laozi (Little is know of him; might not have even existed)

Opposed ritual, hierarchy, education; civilization and society are corrupting

There is no absolute morality or meaning to life
 The Dao is the “path” or “way” of nature – individuals should strive to conform to this
Throughout Chinese civilization, many people have drawn on both of these philosophies
6. Examine the map on page 52 to gain a sense of Nubia’s location
Briefly explain:
A. The region of Nubia, and trade with Egypt (exchange of goods, cultural ideas, and technology).
B. What does the image on page 38 (Wall Painting of Nubians Arriving in Egypt) reveal about trade between Egypt and Nubia?
Nubia was a region on the upper Nile, south of Egypt

Region served as a trade link between the Mediterranean and tropical Africa
 Rich with natural resources: gold, metals
Trade with Egypt expanded due to Nubia’s location & wealth and Egypt’s desire for Nubian gold

Trade was mutually beneficial to both Nubia and Egypt o Goods from tropical Africa flowed through Nubia to Egypt o Egypt took over Nubian mines at times – supplied gold to the Middle East
Nubians adopted Egyptian culture, language, and religion o Nubian documents have been found written in hieroglyphics; mummified Nubian remains found in modesty pyramids
The image on page 38 (Wall Painting of Nubians Arriving in Egypt)
Shows an advanced Nubian society

Technology (wheeled vehicles) and domesticated animals
Demonstrates social hierarchy -- class differences.

Some Nubians well dressed: jewelry and fine clothes; others more plainly dresses and steering the chariot / tending to the animal
Different skin tones might imply ethnic diversity
Demonstrates why Egyptians valued Nubia – gold
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Implies frequent trade between the regions: Nubians shown travelling to Egypt; image is on the tomb of an Egyptian administrator in Nubia. Nile River made this trade easy.
7. Examine the map on page 59 to see the locations on these two civilizations
Briefly explain:
A. The isolation of the people of Mesoamerica
B. Olmec and Chavín civilization (Skip the section called Celtic Europe, pages 54-58)
People in the Americas were isolated from the rest of the world for 1000s of years

Agriculture developed over centuries. Corn became especially important.
Olmec = the first early Mesoamerican civilization, 1200-400 BCE

Urban centers; an elite class

Skilled artisans – jade used a lot

Merchant class

engaged in long-distance trade
 Religious rituals o Polytheistic (belief in many gods) o Human and animal characteristics were blended o Shamans -- priests o Human sacrifice / bloodletting

Astronomy – calendar

Culture influence over a large area: o All Mesoamerican civilizations that came after the Olmec were influenced by their culture – The Maya, for example.
Chavín was the first major urban civilization in South America – Andean region

Influenced the region for centuries

Benefitted from trade routes among distant ecological zones. o Possible trade with Mesoamerica

Monumental building projects: constructed roads, bridges, temples, irrigation

Textiles were produced

Class distinctions developed: o King and priests

Jaguar-man = most common image (a religious image) on pottery, textiles, sculpture
 Developed metallurgy @ 500 BCE
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8. Environment and Organization: Focus on impact of environment of growth of strong state.
Religion and Power: Connection between religion and elites.
A Tale of Two Hemispheres: Take careful notes.
Environment and Organization
River-valley civilizations (China, Mesopotamia, Egypt) – great flood-prone rivers / lack of regular rainfall

powerful institutions to organize many people for irrigation projects

China: authoritarian gov’t = a recurring feature in history since Shang
Nubia: Need for protection from desert nomads & Egyptian rulers  strong state

Power & wealth came from trade with sub-Saharan Africa & Egypt, and resources (gold)
Olmec and Chavín: Organized networks bring together resources 
unity.
Religion and Power
Elites used religion to increase power
Shang: Rulers = intermediaries with heaven. Bronze vessels – ancestors. Oracle bones – divination
Nubia: Powerfully influenced by Egypt. Temples, pyramids, gods, beliefs on Egyptian model
Olmec and Chavín: Ritual displays in urban centers, where elites lived. Olmec shamans.
A Tale of Two Hemispheres
Why did powerful civilizations appear many centuries later in the Western Hemisphere than in the
Eastern Hemisphere?

Eastern Hemisphere: o Far larger number of wild plant and animal species suited to domestication o Natural east-west axis of Europe and Asia all for relatively rapid spread of domesticated plants / animals: similar climate zones along the same latitudes

settled agriculture sooner than in Western Hemisphere o Settled agriculture

population growth, political, social, and technological development

Western Hemisphere (Americas): o Far fewer wild plant and animal species to be domesticated o North-west axis of the continents made it harder for the domesticated plants / animals to spread – variations in climate at different latitudes o So, the development of complex societies came about more slowly

You will only be responsible for limited selections from chapter 3.
Guided Reading Questions:
1. Iron Age (page 69) – Define this term. Why was iron important?
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The period during which iron was used primarily for tools and weapons, instead of bronze. Early first millennium for many societies in Eastern Hemisphere

Advantages:

A single metal, not an alloy

Many sources of iron ore
 Hardness – tools / weapons had harder, sharper edges than bronze tools / weapons
2. Who were Hittites and what new technologies did they employ? (page 72)
From Anatolia (Turkey) – created empire

New technologies: horse-drawn chariots; iron tools and weapons

econ & military advantages.
3. Israel, 2000-500 BCE (pages 84-90) – You will not be responsible for all of this information.
 Examine the maps on page 85 for the location of Israel

Define and explain the following:
A.
Israel o The land of Cannan (see map p. 85) occupied by the Israelites from the early second millennium. Modern-day state of Israel was founded in 1948
B.
Hebrew Bible o A collection of sacred books reflecting the concerns and view of the Israelites
C.
“Covenant” and “Chosen People” (page 85) o The Israelites entered a covenant of pact with their god, Yahweh. They would be his
“chosen people” if they would only worship him.
D.
First Temple o A sanctuary built by King Solomon in Jerusalem in the 1oth century BCE. A central shrine for he Israelites
E.
Monotheism o The belief in one god (as opposed to polytheism, the belief in many gods). The core
Israelite belief o Israelite monotheism was eventually passed onto the Christianity and Islam
F.
Diaspora o Assyria and Babylon conquered Israel at different times. o Communities of Israelites / Jews were dispersed, scattered, kicked out of their homeland.
The Diaspora continues to this day.
4. Phoenicians -- Who were they and where were they located? What regions did they explore and colonize? Development of alphabetic system. Refer to the maps on pages 85 and 93.
Semitic-speaking people living on the coast of modern-day Lebanon and Syria. 1 st
Millennium BCE

Explored Mediterranean – widespread commerce that spanned Med. Sea.

Founded Carthage (modern-day Tunisia) and other colonies in the western Mediterranean.
 Developed “alphabetic” system of writing with about 24 symbols – each symbol represented a sound. Consonants only. o The Greeks later added symbols for vowels

1 st
truly alphabetic system of writing.
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