Appeals Invention Templates and Examples:
Ethical Appeals
Situated Ethos: Display of qualities that the rhetor possesses (education, rank,
experience) by referencing things outside the argument or its presentation.
From Kyah Johnson's opinion article:
In my relatively recently past, this quote would have elicited an internal
conversation of disbelief. My thinking was, “This is nice but idealist. I have
experience in daily life. I know that merely saying thank you does not unlock the
fullness of life.” For me, gratitude’s singular function equaled thanking someone
for deeds done for me. It was as conventional and expected as brushing my teeth
in the morning and evening.
Invented Ethos: Display of qualities that the rhetor possesses (intelligence, knowledge,
goodwill) by presenting the argument in a particular way
From Jen Ifebi's first draft:
Believe it or not, majority of America’s principles were taken from Christian
beliefs and values. Somewhere along the way, people gained amnesia. Many like
to deceive themselves by claiming that the law of man is separate from the law of
“God” but I am here to tell you that is false. The law of man was obviously
conceived from some kind of doctrine of a higher being. How can a nation really
“form a more perfect Union” if citizens are unsettled about unnecessary issues
such as abortion? How can a nation really “establish Justice” if an adult
murdering an adult isn’t equivalent to an adult murdering a baby?
From Jen Ifebi's second draft:
Imagine taking the issue of abortion and making it worse. That is exactly what the
Sonogram Law has been doing throughout several states, especially in the south,
for the past few years. First, the whole idea started off in some states as part of the
preparation for abortion where the woman must be offered a chance to view the
ultrasound image but she could decline. Then in others it became a required part
of abortion. In both scenarios, the woman could always ask to see the image or
hear a description. As of February 3, 2012, it has been documented that North
Carolina required the ultrasound and a written description to be shown; whereas
Oklahoma not only required the ultrasound and written description to be shown
but also a verbal description. However, the laws in both states are temporarily
unenforceable pending a court decision. In good old Texas, the sonogram image
must be shown and described textually and verbally. In these three states, the law
allows the woman to decline to view the image but in Texas the woman may
decline to listen to the description under certain circumstances.
Pathetic Appeals
Values: Key terms that elicit strong emotional reactions in the audience because they
relate to abstractions or to specific things (monuments, people, places) that the audience
cares about.
From Suzanne Horani's opinion article:
Imagine not knowing where your child is, for a month. You know the Syrian
security forces arrested your child. You have no idea whether he is alive or dead.
You’re hoping he is alive, praying he is alive. After one month you receive your
son, dead. Not only dead but also mutilated. Gunshots and bruises make up what
is left of his body with his penis castrated. What did this boy do to deserve such
treatment? All he wanted was his freedom.
Images: Vivid descriptions of scenes, people, objects (real or hypotethetical) that will
create a strong emotional reaction in the audience.
From Rob Briggs's opinion article:
Tebow’s biggest win of the season came in the AFC Wild Card Game, where
Tebow upset the number one ranked Pittsburgh Steelers’ defense on an 80-yard
connection to wide receiver Demarius Thomas for the game winning touchdown
in Overtime.
Topics/Enthymeme Invention Templates and Examples:
Definition (categorical reasoning):
Invoking a definition in order to place the thing being discussed within the defined
category: “Racism is … [definition] … clearly this op-ed cartoon is racist.”
From Patrick Wall's article:
Datum: It is not simply enough to kill a man in Mexico, cartel member’s opt to
leave messages to the public instead. Decapitations in cartel controlled cities run
rampant, and messages are often inscribed onto the bloodied t shirts of bloated
corpses on the steps of city centers for all to see. One particular man known as the
“soup-maker” was infamous for treating enemies of the cartels to baths in barrels
of acid and burying them in his yard. The Mexican public is subject to viewing
this kind of violence everyday. Many are left with no hope for defeating the
cartels, and most know not to act out.
Claim: While they may not carry the label of terrorists, they have inflicted terror
unseen by the likes of the US or from the hands of al-Qaeda. Cuidad Juarez, just
across the border from El Paso, is one of the world’s most dangerous cities has
become a stage for the creatively brutal cartel displays of violence.
Since: Any effort to terrorize an innocent population with violence is terrorism.
Genus and species (whole and parts):
Dividing a general category into parts or subtypes, in order to discuss the parts or
subtypes separately, or to place the thing being discussed in one of them: “There is
conscious or deliberate racism, as in white-supremacist ideology, and unconscious
racism; this op-ed cartoon is unconsciously racist.”
From Jennifer Little's article:
When Paterno discovered that appropriate actions against Sandusky were not
taken, he should have immediately gone to the police or at least identified the
child and secured his well being. When asked about Paterno's accountability to
Penn State in this scandal, an anonymous attorney out of Fort Worth stated,
"Though he fulfilled the depth of his legal obligation, his moral responsibility as a
leader in the university should have stepped in to prevent him from becoming a
complicit in a cover up".
Had Paterno lived, he should have faced criminal charges, but not to the same
extent that Sandusky will face with the likely jail sentence before him. A jail
sentence for Paterno would have been unethical due to his age, medical condition,
and the fact that he did not intentionally commit a crime out of spite. It is illogical
to spend citizen’s tax dollars to put a law-abiding citizen behind bars with the
consistent issue of overpopulation in jails so relevant. Aside from forced
resignation by the university, Paterno should have civil charges from the loss that
the school suffered.
Datum: Paterno violated no laws, though he did not do enough to prevent others
from breaking the law, and his refusal to stop other law breakers hurt the
university.
Claim: Paterno is morally responsible and should have been held accountable in
civil court.
Warrant: There are two kinds of responsibility, two kinds of accountability: moral
and legal, civil and criminal.
From Scott Fader's article:
The American political machine is corrupt; not in the traditional “money under
the table” sense, but rather in a not-illegal subservience to corporate and union
bribery. Our politicians depend on money donated by corporations and wealthy
individuals to fund their campaigns, and the candidate that spends the most
money wins the election over 90% of the time.
Revision: There are two types of corruption: traditional and recent...
Example (induction):
Invoking specific instances (either historical or hypothetical) that illustrate a general
pattern in how the world works, in order to assert that pattern as a topic of the real :
“Every economic crisis in the last 100 years has resulted from inadequate or outdated
market-regulation mechanisms … [citation of examples] … It is clear that inadequate
regulation produces economic crises.”
From Katherine Thayer's article:
Many suggest altering the tests so that they more accurately reflect what students
can do. For example, during the time I’ve been in school Texas has changed its
standardized test twice in order to address problems: the TAAS became the
TAKS, which will soon become the STAAR.
They have played good against bad teams (such as the Hornets), but lose to the
good teams (such as the Lakers).
Analogy (similarity, comparison):
Drawing inferences based on an asserted equivalence or resemblance between two things:
“We face an economic crisis similar to the Great Depression; hence we should apply the
policies that were successful then, and avoid the ones that failed or made it worse.”
From Alyssa Vega's article:
The idea of the word “segregation” being used today sounded a little far-fetched
to me at first because automatically, the first thing that came to mind was the civil
rights movement. One by one, students from all aspects of the underrepresented
communities shared their stories of passing through West Campus experiencing
the embarrassment of going through an instance of racial discrimination.
Revision: The situation in West Campus is like the civil rights movement, so we
should fight segregation in the same ways...
From Jen Ifebi's article:
A big issue within this issue is in regards to the amount of visits the women will
have to make. With one appointment involving seeing the sonogram and another
involving hearing the heartbeat, one would think the woman would be
emotionally exhausted. However, in reality, these requirements are just like any
other requirements in any other surgical procedure. For example, when you tear
your knee ligaments, don’t you have to go in for examination? The doctor must
feel the injury and see how much it hurts you, give you an X-Ray, and so on. In
the midst of all of these appointments, doesn’t the doctor have to give you pros
and cons of each option you have, verbatim?
Correlative ideas (a variation of analogy):
Arguments based on assumptions that two ideas are parallel or logically correspond: “If it
was right for me to execute the prisoner, it was right for him to be executed.” Aristotle
reports a clever argument made by the general Iphicrates in the Athenian Assembly,
when someone proposed that his teenaged son be made to perform adult civic duties
because he was “tall enough”: “If you declare tall boys men, you must also rule that short
men are boys!” (Rhetoric 2.23.17; Aristotle calls this “consequences from analogy,”
which we consider a version of “correlatives”).
Greater and lesser:
Comparing two similar things of different magnitude, to show that what is true for the
lesser is even more true for the greater (or, conversely, what is true for the greater is less
true for the lesser): “Babe Ruth hit sixty home runs under much more difficult conditions
than batters face in modern baseball, so his achievement is greater than that of those who
recently have surpassed his numbers.”
From Nick Rains's article:
On January 2nd, 1960, John F. Kennedy announced his candidacy, only 10
months before the November election. This increase in duration was enough of a
detour from the typical 9 month campaign that it prompted an article in the June
27th, 1960 issue of Time magazine titled “Is the Presidential Campaign too
Long?.” So, have things actually changed so much that we need campaigns that
are nearly double in length what they were in 1960?
Revision: If we were worried in 1960 when the campaign season lasted 10
months, shouldn't we be apoplectic now that it lasts 19?
From Kelsey Burton's article:
A true fan will always remain optimistic even through the losses. Let’s see, we
were standing 8th in the Western Conference with a 10-7 record earlier in the
season when injured Dirk sat painfully on the courtside. We as fans would still
stay hopeful as we watched each game at the edge of our seats in anticipation for
another big win. There’s no doubt that with a couple hurt, key players Nowitzki
(sore knee) and Carter (sprained left foot), the Mavs were feeling a bit weary over
the upcoming games. Not to fear, Kidd is here with some few inspiring words
regarding the previous loss of Nowitzki: "We got to go out and win games," Kidd,
Maverick Point Guard, passionately stated. "We're not trying to hold anything.
We're trying to get better as a team and when he gets back, it'll just make us that
much stronger." And so he was right.
About a third way through season, Dirk came back ready to attack with his new
teammates once again, but this time they are out to prove they aren’t easy
competition. With the their newfound teamwork and new record of 14-8 standing
number 4 in the Western Conference is proof enough that these guys still have
what it takes to flip the scoreboard around.
Revision: If good fans stuck by the Mavs earlier in the season when they had big
troubles but showed a glimmer of promise, then we should similarly stick by them
now, when the troubles aren't as dire and the promise much greater.
From Kyah Johnson's article:
After two months, the individuals reported feeling more optimist and happier.
Additionally, they noted a decrease in physical aliments and engaged in more
physical activity. [1] So, imagine the impact of daily gratitude!
Revision: If two months of gratitude made people feel more optimistic and
happier, two years will much more dramatically improve your disposition.
Difference:
Asserting non-similarity between two things, usually in order to counter analogical
arguments based on an assumed equivalence:
“The crisis we face today does not, in fact, resemble the Great Depression …
[explanation of differences] … so Depression-era remedies will not improve the
present situation.”
From Jonathan Lehrmann's article:
For those of you out there who believe that this is no different than in 2008 when
Obama and Clinton were locked in a battle late into the primary season, let me
explain the difference. While no numbers can prove it or show it, momentum is a
powerful, mysterious thing. It does not necessarily only come from victories, as
Ron Paul has showed this year, and it is not guaranteed to come from a victory
either. In fact, no candidate has won consecutive primaries so far. In 2008, Obama
and Clinton were both riding so much momentum that 71% of Democrats were
"more enthusiastic about the election than most years", and ultimately it was
Obama who was riding an wave of growing momentum to defeat Clinton and
continued to ride that momentum to win the presidency. Heck, this isn't even like
McCain and Romney of '08, when 65% of Republicans reported the same thing
about the election. This time, its down to 58% despite the opportunity to unseat a
Democratic president and only 48% of Republicans are happy with the
Republican candidates compared to the 68% who saw the Republican field as
"excellent or good" in '08. Rather than a battle of two heavy weights, this has
become a political edition of Survivor, who can last the longest before being cast
off.
Antithesis:
Drawing inferences from things regarded as opposites: “If an ignorant citizenry is
harmful to democracy, then an educated citizenry will strengthen it”; “If free-market
capitalism promotes human liberty, socialism will restrain it.”
From Stephan Casso's article:
Hypothetically speaking, what if Romney ends up securing the Republican
nomination? The former governor who has been painted as the “Massachusetts
Moderate” could potentially turn off those far right conservative voters who
would lean more towards a Gingrich or Santorum. Conversely and perhaps more
problematic, what if Gingrich or Santorum wins the nomination? Would Romney
supporters who are further left than Gingrich/Santorum followers be tempted to
go against their own party and vote for Obama?
Revision: If Romney's moderation will turn off conservatives, then Gingrich's and
Santorum's conservatism will turn off moderates.
Contradictories:
Arguments based on the assumption that two things are mutually exclusive (if X is Y, it
can’t be Z): “If Mr. Jones has repeatedly cheated on his taxes, he cannot credibly be put
in charge of the IRS.”
From Collin Eye's article:
It’s usually agree that if you want to learn something, the best way is by doing.
Video games are the first art form where what’s designed is a first-hand
experience rather than a removed witnessing. Video games have a possibly better
chance of broadening someone’s mind: instead of reading a novel and learning
details a game offers the chance to actually experience those details. This is a
powerful advantage: that instead of reading the Iliad one could live it, instead of
admiring Hector they one could embody him.
Revision: If video games aren't passive forms of entertainment, they must be
active.
Causes and effects:
Making inferences about the probable causes of an effect, or the probable effects of a
cause: “Jones was driving erratically; he probably was intoxicated”; “Nation Z has an
extremely oppressive government; there must be a resistance movement developing
underground.” Cause/effect has many variations, all based on assumptions about
causality. For example, arguing that something should be chosen (or avoided) for the
sake of its effects (consequences): “If an educated citizenry strengthens democracy, let us
then seek to make Americans the best-educated people on earth.” Or, making judgments
about an act (an effect) on the basis of its motivations or causes: “Band X was formed,
not so much from an intent to make big money, but from an intent to open up the
possibilities for contemporary music; that alone is a reason for admiring their
interestingly quirky art.” (There is an antithesis in this argument too.)
From Madeline Merritt's article:
Surely, you may think that the enormous costs of the death penalty are justified by
its deterrent effect. However, it is quite the opposite. Although Texas is the
nations leader in the use of the death penalty, the murder rates in Houston, Dallas,
and Fort Worth increased significantly in the last year (FNSA). The Death Penalty
Information Center states, “ According to a survey of the former and present
presidents of the country’s top academic criminological societies, 88% of these
experts rejected the notion that the death penalty acts as a deterrent to murder.”
Furthermore, the FBI uniform crime report showed that the south had the highest
murder rates (the south accounts for 80% of executions) while the northeast had
the lowest murder rates as well as the lowest rate of executions (1%). Thus,
capital punishment fails to deter murder and ultimately is not worth millions.
Antecedents:
Making inferences about an act from what that preceded it: “Is it likely that the defendant
stole the painting? Security cameras show him hanging around the museum almost every
day for several weeks before the theft.”
From Scott Fader's article:
Two years and Occupy Wall Street later his prediction has come to pass, but it’s
difficult to resurrect campaign finance reform in a political climate where voters
feel that no progress is possible.
Revision: Our refusal to try to improve campaign financing is even less forgivable
after two years of protests on other issues, such as income inequality. If we can
occupy Wall Street, then we should certainly be able to occupy elections.
Concomitants:
Making inferences about an act or event based on accompanying circumstances: “The
defendant not only killed the victim, but did so slowly, and whistled to the tunes in his
iPod while doing it. This is an egregious murder!”
From Chelsea Green's article:
Newt Gingrich has boasted for weeks that he has the most Twitter followers of
any conservative candidate at 1.3 million, more than twice that of Sarah Palin.
However, closer inspection has shown that more than half of these followers have
little to no personal information, no pictures, and minimal posting activity,
leading to accusations that they are "dummy accounts" meant to boost Newt's
numbers. An unidentified staffer claims that Gingrich even paid for some of those
followers, offering "finder's fees" to those who could recruit fellow Newt
supporters.
Revision: Gingrich's use of dummy accounts is bad enough, but paying for some
of these accounts makes his duplicity even worse.
Association (a variation of concomitants):
Arguments based on non-causal ideas of “what usually goes with what”: “The old Rose
Hill neighborhood has undergone gentrification in the last two decades — you probably
can find some good restaurants, coffee bars, and antique shops there.” Association is the
most potentially problematic of the formal topics, since it has a built-in tendency toward
reasoning based on prejudicial stereotypes, though that is not automatic. The
controversial practice of “profiling” airline passengers to identify potential terrorists
relies on this associative form of reasoning. Much of the debate has focused on which
methods of profiling are valid and effective, and which are based on mere prejudicial
stereotypes. Association also is the basis of the medical notion of “syndromes” —
conditions defined by sets of symptoms that tend to occur together, but do not necessarily
all occur, as in AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome).
From Ann Norman's article:
Additionally, taking hand written notes offers students another way to engage in
the lecture hall. Typing has become an efficient yet thoughtless process for many
college age individuals. When one instead takes notes by hand one experience a
process of listening to what the professor said and assessing what to write. Typing
notes requires lower levels of interpreting and evaluating what a professor says
and is instead more like transcribing a dictation.
Revision: Active engagement with information typically accompanies learning.
Handwriting--not typing--notes requires that we actively engage a professor's
lecture, so handwriting will accompany real learning.