Peer Groups
What is a peer group?
A peer group is conceived as a small group of similarly aged, fairly close friends, sharing
the same activities (Kirchler et al., 1993). Adolescents spend much of their time in these
groups. According to Bradford Brown (1990), high school students spend twice as much
of their time with peers as with parents or other adults.
What is the importance of peer groups during adolescence?
The role played by peers in adolescence is very critical. Relationships with peers during
the adolescent years come closer to serving as prototypes for adult relationships in social
relationships, in work and in interactions with members of the opposite sex. Teenagers
who do not learn how to get along with others by the time they reach adulthood are likely
to face obstacles in years ahead. The role of the peer group in helping an individual to
define his or her own identity becomes very important during adolescence. At no other
stage of development is one's sense of identity so unstable. The adolescent must get ready
to meet society's demands for social independence, for relationships with both sexes,
marriage and adulthood. For these reasons, teens need the support and guidance of their
peers (Conger, 1988).
What do peer groups provide for adolescents?
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the opportunity to learn how to interact with others
support in defining identity, interests, abilities and personality
autonomy without the control of adults and parents
opportunities for witnessing the strategies others use to cope with similar
problems, and for observing how effective they are
instrumental and emotional support
building and maintaining friendships (Atuater, 1988)
What are the factors that contribute to the formation of peer groups?
One of the most important aspects of adolescents' lives are their close ties with their
peers. Although peer groups are important at all ages, it is not until mid or late
adolescence that friendship takes the role of intimate relationships. These peer groups are
characterized by trust, self disclosure and loyalty. One major factor at work during
adolescent development is that they are showing autonomy, or a sense of being a separate
person. Another factor is the cognitive changes that enables adolescents to see situations
from another person's point of view. As a result of these developments, individuals
experience a greater need for intimacy and an increased capacity to enter close
relationships or peer groups (Atuater, 1988).
Cliques vs Crowds
Peer groups can be defined in numerous ways. Following is a differentiation between two
commonly observed groups during adolescence, cliques and crowds.
What is a Clique?
Cliques are small groups of between two and twelve individuals, and the average clique
consists of five or six adolescents (Steinberg, 1993). Cliques are small enough so that the
members feel that they know each other well and appreciate each other better than do
people outside the clique. Members of a clique can be defined by common activities or by
friendships. Cliques are important because they provide the main social context in which
adolescents interact with each other. They are social settings in which adolescents "hang
out", talk to each other, and form close friendships. Two forms of cliques have been
described by Brown (in Feldman & Elliott, 1990). An activity clique is formed by
adolescents that are thrust together by circumstance. Friendship cliques are those that an
adolescent chooses for him or herself.
Similarities Among Clique Members
The most important influence on the composition of cliques is similarity (Steinberg,
1993). One similarity among adolescents is cliques is age. Age grouping in junior and
senior high schools makes having friends who are older or younger unlikely. Therefore
age segregation is prominent in adolescent cliques. Cliques also tend to be composed of
adolescents of the same sex. This sex cleavage weakens later in adolescence when
adolescents become more interested in the opposite sex. Adolescents also tend to form
cliques with other teens in their same social class. Indicators such as income, residence,
and reputation in the community have been used to sort people into five different social
classes. A final similarity among clique members is race. Race segregation may be due to
socioeconomic status, academic achievement, or attitude.
What is a Crowd?
The second type of peer group structure is the crowd. Crowds are larger, reputation based
groups of adolescents who may or may not spend a lot of time together. In contrast to
cliques, crowds are not based on actual friendships. Crowds serve to locate the adolescent
within the social structure of the school. Crowds are seen as having different degrees of
status or importance. A membership group is a crowd to which an adolescent belongs. A
reference group is a crowd that serves as a guidepost for determining one's values and
actions or measuring one's abilities (Brown in Feldman & Elliott, 1990).
Defining the Different Crowds
Typical crowds include "jocks", "brains", "nerds", "populars", and "druggies". The terms
to label these crowds may vary from school to school but their presence is commonplace.
Some adolescents resist being labeled as a member of a specific crowd. They would
rather not be associated with any particular crowd than be associated with a crowd or
image they dislike.
Independence and Rebellion
One of the major developmental tasks of adolescence is for the teen to develop
independence from his or her parents. Transitioning from a dependent child-parent
relationship to an independent and adult-parent relationship not only takes time but also
may be characterized by rebellion, defiance, turmoil, restlessness and ambivalence. For
both parent and teen, emotions may be high; in addition, the adolescent will exhibit mood
swings and this passage from dependence to independence may take up to six years. The
adolescent should exhibit independence, albeit not financial, when he or she departs for
college.
Along with the adolescent’s task to achieve independence from family, his or her parents
also have tasks that will help their teen to accomplish the transition from dependence to
independence:
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Rules must be stated so that desirable and undesirable behaviors are known to the
teen
Boundaries must be set and communicated although negotiation is important in
the process of limit setting
Consequences for breaking rules should be determined and communicated
The teen should be taught how to make decisions with parents as role models
Prior to adolescence, children usually abide by rules set by parents. A teen initiates the
physical and emotional changes of adolescence, the reach for independence frequently
leads to a teen resisting rules rather than complying with them. One may think of the
force to comply and the force to resist. A teen who is seeking independence may seek
resistance as part of the normal evolution toward independence. Of course the family
needs cooperation and interdependence among members to function smoothly. Resistance
by the teen as part of emotional development may be perceived as rebellion by parents.
This sets parents and teens at odds with each other.
Some researchers feel that teens who are reared in excessively strict or excessively
permissive environments may have disadvantages compared to those who are raised in a
more flexible but firm setting. In order to prevent chaos, rules are important for any
organization including the family; however, excessive rules may not only be difficult to
enforce with adolescents, but they may cause an even higher state of rebellion.
The limits should be clearly defined and articulated to adolescents. For example, if a teen
wishes to begin dating, then guidelines should be set beforehand. This might include, for
example guidelines for curfews, activities or transportation. Within the guidelines, the
rules should not be so totally inflexible that the teen cannot on special occasions negotiate
some changes.
If the teen breaks a rule or limit, then consequences must be linked to the infraction. It is
helpful to engage the teen in the process of setting a meaningful consequence to rule
breaking. If parents allow teens to participate in the development of rules or limits as well
as define consequences for breaking these rules, then this sense of teen ownership may
lead to more compliance with the rules.
To help the teen achieve independence, rules and limits should be consistently enforced.
It is never helpful for parents to occasionally enforce rules or be overly rigid in enforcing
them. Some rules should never be allowed to be broken; other rules may have some
flexibility. For example, never allow the teen to ride with a driver who has been drinking
alcohol. But for some occasions, with prior negotiation, a teen might be able to stay out
later than his or her curfew.
The limits and rules should adjust to the changing needs of the adolescent. For example, a
curfew for a twelve year old who is just entering adolescence should be earlier than a
seventeen year old who is about to leave for college. This adaptation to the changing
adolescent will also foster independence.
Expect every adolescent to have periods of rebellion. There are some guidelines that
parents can use to help deal with teen rebellion as well as help the teen develop
independence:
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Parents should allow their teen some degree of rebellion. Immersion in peer group
activities that may include different dress, talk, or behavior enhances the
development of independence. Parents should avoid criticism of teens on the basis
of their clothing, music, friends, speech, posture, philosophy or interests.
Allowing rebellion in these areas may prevent more deviant behavior such as drug
abuse, lying or promiscuity.
Although it may be difficult, parents should strive to develop an adult relationship
with their teens over time. Parents should try to build mutual respect; support and
the ability to have good times together much like what would occur when the teen
is an adult.
Society’s rules and consequences will help the teen become independent. For
example, the consequences of a teen being chronically late for a job may result in
his or her termination from the position. This will teach the teen responsibility for
actions and help move him or her toward the goal of independence. Sometimes, it
is best if the parents allow the teen to learn from trial and error.
When one’s teen is in a bad mood, parents should try to give him or her space and
privacy. More than likely, the adolescent will not want to discuss the issue with a
parent. Although a child may be told what to do, adolescents will probably
challenge their parents’ rules and opinions. A teen talking back to his or her
parents is normal adolescent behavior.