Student Number: 0117602
Group Number: 5
18/03/2002
ESSAY
In the context of work organization, critically examine the links
between the concepts of ‘identity’ and the concept of
‘personality’.
1) Psychologists and sociologists attempt to identify the characteristics of human
and to understand and measure differences between individuals.
Many
theories have been developed arguing about the personality and the identity of
the individual, but not all are useful in the context of work organization and
some of them conflict with each other. Understanding the personality and
identifying our self is crucial, but from where do we get these characteristics
and is it possible to change them? This essay looks at concept of personality
and identity by referring to different theories that have been developed over
the time. Section two gives a definition of personality and explains labels that
are used to describe this term.
Section three describes some personality
theories that have been developed since Hippocrates’s time till resent years.
On section four is a contrast between nomothetic and ideographic approaches,
whereas section five deals with self-concept term and social identity. Section
six critically analyses personality and identity theories developed by
psychologists and sociologists, and the last section gives some conclusions
about these theories in the context of work organizations.
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2) Psychologists use the word personality to define the physical, mental and
social qualities of the individual (Lecture, Binns D., 2002). When measuring
aspects of personality and aptitude or intelligence different assessments and
tests are used. The area of psychology that deals with measurement and
assessment of intelligence, aptitude, personality and systematic testing is
called psychometrics.
Psychometric assessments are used to complement
subjective methods to help managers reach their judgments about people. For
example an assessment could be used to select the right candidate for the job.
The labels that are used to describe the component and structure of personality
are known as type and trait. The descriptive label that is used for a distinct
pattern of personality characteristics is known as a ‘type’. The stable attitude
of an individual’s personality that influences behaviour in particular direction
is known as a ‘trait’.
3) Over the time, different personality theories have been developed and the first
theorist who claimed that personality type is determined by bodily humours,
generating different behaviour patterns is Hippocrates. He divided the people
in four types (temperament): sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic and choleric
by giving each type a specific behaviour.
Sheldon, who argued that
temperament was related to physique, which means the personality is depend
on the ‘biological individuality’ size and shape, developed an other theory. He
classified the personality in three somatotypes: the ectomorph who is thin, the
mesomorph who is muscular and the endomorph who is fat. Like Hippocrates,
he gave each somatotype some characteristics to describe the particular
individual. Freud described the personality by explaining his understanding of
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three inner areas of the mind, which are ego, superego and id. Conscious ego
and subconscious superego are areas to which we do have access and the
unconscious id to which we do not (Organisation And Identities, 1994). An
other theory that lies in four personality types is developed by psychologist
Carl Gustav Jung whose approach is based on psychological preferences for
extroversion and introversion, for sensation and intuition, for thinking or
feeling and for judging or perceiving (Organizational Behaviour, Prentice
Hall, 2001). From Jung’s theory, Eysenck explored the key dimensions on
which personality varies including the extraversion-introversion and sought to
identify trait clusters and explained the personality based on genetics and
biology.
4) Nomothetic approach studies the personality by emphasizing the identification
of universal personality traits and looks for systematic relationships between
different aspects determined.
In contrast with nomothetic approach is
idiographic approach that studies the personality by emphasizing the
uniqueness of the individual. Idiographic approach criticizes the study of
personality in nomothetic approach and gives attention in perspective and
implication. This approach deals with details of one person and explores the
image of self-concept.
5) As the development of self-concept is a social process, it follows that
personality is open to change through new social interactions and experiences.
Thus, the personality of the individual is the result of process in which the
individual learns to be the person they are. According to Mead (Mind, Self
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and Society, 1934) the self has two components, I and Me. I, is the unique,
individual, conscious and impulsive aspect of the individual. Me, is the norms
and values of society that the individual learns and aspects, or internalises.
Social identity theory holds that aspect of our identity derive from
membership of a group. As stated on (Tajfel and Turner, 1986) that part of
their self-concept, which comes from their membership of a group is called
social identity. It holds that the group or social categories to which people
belong are an integral part of their self-concept. Social identity fulfils two
functions. First, it defines and evaluates a person. Second, it prescribes
appropriate behaviour for them.
6) Since Hippocrates’s time who lived around 400 BC many theories have been
developed.
From that time psychologists and sociologists have tried to
identify the individual and giving the specific label. Hippocrates divided the
world in four types that in personal experience reveals there are more than
four types. The theory that was developed by Sheldon, who argued that the
personality is depend in size and shape is invalid because there are many cases
that prove him wrong. For example, an endomorph somatotype who is fat,
sociable and relaxed can have ectomorph’s characteristics, intellectual and
introverted. Freud’s theory has been criticised from those wishing to model
social sciences on the experimental and quantitative methods. Also, as many
other writing at that time, today are seen as gender blinded (avoiding the
female gender). Eysenck explanations of personality are based on genetics
and biology, which conflict with behaviourist that claim behaviour is shaped
by environmental influence. We explain behaviour with terms like reason,
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motive, purpose, desire and so on. We process and interpret the incoming raw
of data in the light of our past experience, in terms of current needs and
interests, in terms of our knowledge, expectations beliefs and motives. Mead
explains the development of individual consciousness with reference to social
experience.
He argues that self only become the self by means of
reflexiviness. Mead’s explanation is idiographic approach that comparing
with nomothetic techniques appears to be a complex, untidy view of
personality and its development (Organizational Behaviour, 2001).
7) Personality is the psychological quality that influences an individual
characteristic behaviour pattern in a distinctive and consistent manner, across
different situation and over time. Psychometrics term is used to refer to the
broad range of different types of assessments and measurements of aptitude,
intelligence and personality. Type and trait are two labels that attempt to
describe the components and structure of personality. Many theories have
been developed to try and describe the personality but still this term is difficult
to define unambiguously and with precision. Also, it is difficult to predict job
performance from personality profile.
The study of personality by
psychologists is associated with names nomothetic and ideographic
approaches. Sociologists argue that identity emerges as continues process of
experience. We do not come into existence with pre-programmed behaviour
guides. We have to learn the rules that apply in our particular society at a
given time. We live in social and organizational world in which reality means
different things to different people. Within the organizational context, we
offer control to fellow group members who wish to direct our attitudes,
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thoughts and ideas in line with what the group considers appropriate. Our
social and organizational surroundings process no ultimate truth or reality but
are determined instead by the way in which we experience and understand
those worlds which we construct and reconstruct for ourselves, in interaction
with others.
End.
Word Count: 1,237
Bibliography and References
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Organization And Identities (Clark H, Chandler J, Barry J, 1994)
Organizational Behaviour (Prentice Hall, 2001)
Biological Dimensions Of Personality(Eysenck, H. J., 1990)
A Guide To The Development And Use Of Myers- Briggs Type Indicator (Myers
and McCaulley, 1985)
Type A Behaviour And Your Heart (Friedman, M. and Rosenman, R., 1974)
Mind, Self And Society (George Herbert Mead, 1934)
The Achieving Society (McClelland, D. C., 1961)
People Management (Robert Sternberg, 1999)
Trends In Organizational Behaviour (Cooper, C. L. and Rousseau, D. M., 1994)
The Social Identity Theory Of Inter-group Behaviour (Tajfel, H. and Tuner, J. C.,
1986) as quoted on Psychology Of Inter-group Relation (Worchel, S. and Austin,
W. G.)
Average Customer Review (Fadiman, J. and Frager, R., 1998)
Beneath the Mask (Monte, F., C., 1998)
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Lecture (Binns, D., March 2002)
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http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/jung.html
http://www.stanford.edu/~corelli/borderline.html
http://www.bestjobsusa.com/employmentReview/er_0399/0399003.asp
http://www.wynja.com/personality/sadef.html
http://www.itstime.com/jun98.htm
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/sociobiology.html
http://www.spsp.org/what.htm
http://www.paladinexec.com/
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/eysenck.html
http://www.wynja.com/personality/theorists.html
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