Chemistry Review
1. The important of water
Water is one of nature's most important gifts to mankind. Essential to life, a person's survival depends
on drinking water. Water is one of the most essential elements to good health -- it is necessary for the
digestion and absorption of food; helps maintain proper muscle tone; supplies oxygen and nutrients to
the cells; rids the body of wastes; and serves as a natural air conditioning system.
2. How to read a graduate cylinder
Read the scale at the bottom of the curved part of the liquid
3. Water distribution both fresh and salt
Ocean water (97.2%)
Fresh water (2.8%)
4. Distillation
The separation of liquid substances according to their differing boiling points
5. Uses of water in the U.S.
Nation- Steam/electric (48%)
East- Steam/electric (78%)
South- Steam/electric (63%)
Midwest- Steam/electric (57%)
West- Irrigation/agricultural (77%)
Alaska- Mining (77%)
Hawaii- Irrigation/agricultural (57%)
6. Direct vs. Indirect water use
Direct use: drinking water, bathing, washing dishes
Indirect use: using products that are made from water or with water
7. Best ways to conserve water
A. Don’t let the water run while you brush your teeth and you could save up to 4 gallons a minute.
That’s 200 gallons a week for a family of four.
B. By reusing your shower towel multiple times, it will cut down on the amount of laundry you will
produce.
C. Run your washing machine and dishwasher only when they are full and you could save 1000
gallons a month.
8. Subatomic particles, changes and locations
Subatomic particles are the smaller particles composing nucleons and atoms
Can be reduced by changes to the energy binding the proton into an atom
An electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured
9. The water cycle
Repetitive processes of rainfall (or other precipitation), run-off, evaporation, and
condensation that circulate water within Earth’s crust and atmosphere; also called the
hydrologic cycle
10. Ions, cation and anion, finding the correct charge
Anion- A negatively charged ion(－)
Cation- A positively charged ion(＋)
Ions- An atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total
number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge
11. Atoms, atomic number and mass number
Atom- The smallest particle possessing the properties of an element
Atomic number- The number of protons in an atom; this value distinguishes atoms of different
elements
Mass number- The sun of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of a
particular isotope
12. How do phase changes occur? (i.e. liquid to gas)
When a liquid is heated beyond its boiling point it converts to gas
13. Basic metric conversions
A quantity expressed in one set of units is multiplied to convert to another set of units
14. Density
The mass per unit volume of a given material (g/cm3)
15. Writing formulas
16. Classification of matter
17. Polar molecules, water
Water is a "polar" molecule, meaning that there is an uneven distribution of electron density.
Water has a partial negative charge ( ) near the oxygen atom due the unshared pairs of
electrons, and partial positive charges ( ) near the hydrogen atoms.
18. Saturated, super and unsaturated
Saturated- A solution in which the solvent has dissolved as much solute as it can retain stably at a
specified temperature
Supersaturated- A solution containing a higher concentration of solute than a saturated solution at a
specified temperature
Unsaturated- A solution containing a lower concentration of solute than a saturated solution contains
at a specified temperature
19. Solubility graphs
20. pH scale, neutral
21. Gas solubility in water
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

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
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Ar – Argon
CH4 – Methane
C2H4 – Ethylene
C2H6- Ethane
CO - Carbon Monoxide
CO2 - Carbon Dioxide
Cl2 - Chlorine Gas
H2 - Hydrogen Gas
H2S - Hydrogen Sulfide
He – Helium
N2 – Nitrogen
NH3 – Ammonia
O2 – Oxygen
SO2 - Sulfur Dioxide
22. Why is fluoride in drinking water?
Because water fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce
tooth decay. Fluoridated water has fluoride at a level that is effective for preventing cavities
23. Allotropes of carbon
24. Recycling
Recycling is processing used materials (waste) into new products to prevent waste of
potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy
usage, reduce air pollution (from incineration) and water pollution (from landfilling) by
reducing the need for "conventional" waste disposal, and lower greenhouse gas emissions as
compared to virgin production
25. Law of conservation of matter
Matter is neither created nor destroyed in any chemistry reaction or physical change
26. Subscripts vs. Coefficients Balancing equation
27. Atom inventories: counting the number of atoms in a formula or equation
28. Metal Activity series (lab)
29. Reactants vs. products
Reactants- Starting material in a chemical reaction
Products- Substance formed in a chemical reaction
30. Oxidation and reduction
Oxidation- Any process in which one or more electrons can be considered as lost by a
chemical species
Reduction- Any process in which one or more electrons can be considered as gained by a
chemical species
31. Group vs. Families on the Periodic Table
Group (Periodic Table) - A vertical column of elements in the periodic table; also called a
family; group members share similar properties
32. Halogens, Noble Gases, Alkali metals, transition metals
Halogens- The group of elements consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and
astatine
Noble Gases- An unreactive element belonging to the last (right-most) group on the periodic
table
Alkali metals- The group of elements consisting of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium,
cesium, and francium
Transition metals- The 38 elements in groups 3 through 12 of the periodic table
33. Metals vs. nonmetals, location on the periodic table and properties of each
Metals- A material possessing properties such as luster, ductility, conductivity, and
malleability
Nonmetals- A material possessing properties such as brittleness, lack of luster, and
nonconductivity; nonmetals are often insulators
34. Dimitri Mendeleev
Published a periodic table that atoms of different elements have different mass
35. How is the modern periodic table arranged?
By increasing atomic number
36. Chemical vs. Physical properties
Chemical properties are properties of an element or compound in chemical reactions
Physical properties are properties of an element or compound that can be observed without
a chemical reaction of the substance
37. Petroleum
Petroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable liquid consisting of a complex
mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other liquid organic compounds,
that are found in geologic formations beneath the Earth's surface.
38. Crude oil
Petroleum pumped from underground
39. Hydrocarbons
A molecule reaction that adds hydrogen atoms to an organic molecule
40. Renewable
A resource that can be replenished by natural processes over the time frame of human
experience
41. Nonrenewable resources
A resource in limited supply that cannot be replenished by natural processes over the time
frame of human experience
42. Petroleum reserves
North America
Central and South America
Western Europe
Eastern Europe
Africa
Middle East
Central Asia, Far East, and
Oceania
109 Barrels
54
96
17
58
77
686
44
Percent
5.3
9.3
1.7
5.7
7.4
66.4
4.2
103 Barrels per day
23843
5238
14698
5257
2675
5043
21452
Percent
30.5
6.7
18.8
6.7
3.4
6.5
27.4
43. Petroleum consumption
North America
Central and South America
Western Europe
Eastern Europe
Africa
Middle East
Central Asia, Far East, and
Oceania
44. Fractional Distillation
A process of separating a mixture into its components by boiling and condensing the
components
45. What are isomers?
A molecule that has the same formula as another molecule and differs from it only by the
arrangement of atoms or bonds
46. Boiling points for hydrocarbons
47. Fractions
A.
A mixture of petroleum-based substances with similar boiling points and other
properties
B.
One of the distillate portions collected during distillation
48. Intermolecular forces
Forces of attraction among molecules
49. First 10 hydrocarbons
Methane - 1 carbon
Ethane - 2 carbons's
Propane - 3 carbon's
Butane - 4 carbons's
Pentane - 5 carbon's
Hexane - 6 carbon's
Heptane - 7 carbon's
Octane - 8 carbon's
Nonane - 9 carbon's
Decane - 10 carbon's
50. Boiling point trends in hydrocarbon
51. Organic compounds
An organic compound is any member of a large class of gaseous, liquid, or solid chemical
compounds whose molecules contain carbon
52. Carbon chain
Carbon atoms chemically linked to one another, forming a chainlike molecular structure
53. Electron shells
An electron shell may be thought of as an orbit followed by electrons around an atom nucleus
54. Nucleus
The dense, positivity charged central region of an atom that contains protons and neutrons
55. Covalent bond
A linkage between two atoms involving the sharing of one pair (single bond), two pairs
(double bond), or three pairs (triple bond) of electrons
56. Valence electrons
Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom; these relatively loosely held electrons often
participate in bonding with other atoms or molecules
57. Single, double and triple covalent
Single covalent bond- 1 pair of electrons shared by 2 atoms
Double covalent bond- 2 pairs of shared electrons
Triple covalent bond- 3 pairs of shared electrons
58. Electron- dot structure
Diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule and the lone pairs of electrons
that may exist in the molecule
59. Structural formula
A graphical representation of a molecular structure, showing how the atoms are arranged
60. Alkanes
Any of a group of hydrocarbons that have carbon atoms in chains linked by single bonds and
that have the general formula C n H 2n + 2 . Alkanes can be either gaseous, liquid, or solid
61. Tetrahedron
The tetrahedron shape is seen in nature in covalent bonds of molecules. All sp3-hybridized
atoms are surrounded by atoms lying in each corner of a tetrahedron
62. Molecular formula
A formula giving the number of atoms of each of the elements present in one molecule of a
specific compound
63. Condensed formula
Formula of a molecule where symbols of atoms are listed as they appear in the molecule's
structure with bond dashes omitted or limited
64. Straight chain
A chain of atoms in a molecule, usually carbon atoms, that is neither branched nor formed
into a ring
65. Branched chain
An open chain of atoms with one or more side chains attached to it
66. Structural isomers
A form of isomerism in which molecules with the same molecular formula have bonded
together in different orders, as opposed to stereoisomerism
67. Boiling points of isomers
The more branching, the lower the boiling point
68. Climate effect on fuel mixtures
Winter gasoline mixture or cold weather needs to be less dense, with lower molecular-weight
hydrocarbons for higher volatility. The volatility needs to be appropriate for the climate.
69. Energy tracing of materials
Tracing the history of energy used to produce a given product
70. Fossil fuels
A natural fuel such as coal or gas, formed in the geological past from the remains of living
organisms (plant or animal)
71. Potential energy
vs.
Kinetic energy:
|_ associated w/ position
|_ associated with motion
72. General formula for an alkane?
Linear (general formula CnH2n + 2)
Branched (general formula CnH2n + 2, n > 3)
Cyclic (general formula CnH2n, n > 2)
73. Chemical energy
Energy stored in the chemical bonds of substances
74. Thermal energy
The energy a material possesses due to its temperature (heat)
75. Carbon Monoxide
A colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas which is slightly lighter than air; highly toxic to
humans and animals
76. Exothermic and endothermic reactions, be able to identify by graph
Exothermic reaction- a chemical reaction that releases energy in the form of light or heat
Endothermic reaction- A chemical reaction accompanied by the absorption of heat
77. Potential energy diagrams
78. Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed: it can only be transformed from one state to
another
79. Energy efficiency
Percentage of total energy input to a machine or equipment that is consumed in useful work
and not wasted as useless heat
80. Specific heat capacity
The quantity of thermal energy needed to raise the temperature of 1g of a material by 1ºC
81. Heat formula
a) Heat me leased (J) → (KJ)
Heat = (mass water) (Δt change in temp.) (specific heat of water)
b) Heat of Combustion
Heat ÷ (mass of hydrocarbon)
(J) ÷ (g) = J/g (kJ/g)
c) Molar Heat of Combustion
(Heat of Combustion) × Molar mass of hydrocarbon = kJ/mol
82. Heat of Combustion
The energy released as heat when a compound undergoes complete combustion with oxygen
under standard conditions
83. Cracking
The process by which hydrocarbon molecules from petroleum are converted to smaller
molecules, using thermal energy and a catalyst
84. Octane rating
A measure of the combustion quality of gasoline compared to the combustion quality of
isooctane; the higher the number, the higher the octane rating
85. Oxygenated fuel:
A fuel with oxygen-containing additives, such as methanol, that increase the octane rating
and reduce harmful emissions
86. Catalyst
A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction but is itself unchanged
87. MTBE
Methyl tertiary-butyl ether; an octane-boosting fuel additive; contaminates water
88. Hybrid vehicle
A vehicle that combines two or more power sources; the combination of gasoline and electric
power is the most common
89. Biodiesel
An alternative fuel or fuel additive for diesel engines made from various materials such as
new or recycled vegetable oils and animal fats
90. Polymer
A molecule composed of very large numbers of identical repeating units
91. Monomer
A compound whose molecules can react to form the repeating units of a polymer
92. Petrochemical
Any organic compound produced from petroleum or natural gas
93. Branched polymer
A polymer formed by reactions that create numerous side chains rather than linear chains
94. Cross-linking
Polymer chains interconnected by chemical bonds; causes polymer rigidity
95. Saturated hydrocarbons
A hydrocarbon consisting of molecules in which each carbon atom is bonded to four other
atoms
96. Alkenes
Hydrocarbons containing one or more double covalent bonds
97. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon molecules containing one or more double or triple bonds
98. Biomolecules:
Large organic molecules found in living systems
99. US Energy consumption 1850-2000
100.
Oil shale / tar sands:
Sedimentary rock containing a material (kerogen) that can be converted to crude oil
101.
Hydropower:
Hydro-electric power; the generation of electricity by using the motive power of water
102.
Wind and geothermal energy
Wind energy-The generation of electricity by using the power of wind
Geothermal energy-Energy extracted from hot water or steam from Earth’s crust
103.
Compressed natural gas
Natural gas condensed under high pressures (160-240 atm) and stored in metal cylinders;
CNG can serve as a substitute for gasoline or diesel fuel.
104.
Fuel-cell power
Energy from a device for directly converting chemical energy into electrical energy by
chemically combining a fuel (such as hydrogen gas) with oxygen gas; (no combustion)
105.
Atmosphere
The gaseous envelope surrounding Earth, composed of four layers: troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere
106.
Troposphere
The layer of the atmosphere closest to Earth’s surface where most clouds and weather
are located
107.
Gases in the atmosphere
Nitrogen, argon, neon, carbon dioxide, oxygen, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen
108.
Pressure vs. altitude
109.
Pressure
Pressure
Gas behavior
110.
Pressure
Altitude
Altitude
Equals force applied per unit area; in SI, pressure is expressed in pascals (Pa)
111.
Atmospheric pressure: how is it measured
Can be measured as height of a column of mercury
112.
Barometer
A device that measures atmospheric pressure
113.
Solid/liquid/gas (models)
114.
Kinetic Molecular Theory
All the particles have motion
115.
Boyles Law
The pressure and volume of a gas sample at constant temperature are inversely
proportional; PV= k
116.
Charles law
The volume of a gas sample at constant pressure is directly proportional to its Kelvin
temperature; V= kT
117.
Electromagnetic radiation
Radiation ranging from low-energy radio waves to high-energy X-rays and gamma rays;
includes visible light
118.
Photon
An energy bundle of electromagnetic radiation that travels at the speed of light
119.
Frequency
The number of waves that pass a given point each second; in other words, the rate of
oscillation; for electromagnetic radiation, the product of frequency and wavelength
equals the speed of light
120.
Wavelength
The distance between corresponding points of two consecutive waves; for
electromagnetic radiation, the product of frequency and wavelength equals the speed of
light
121.
Solar spectrum
122.
Infrared radiation
Electromagnetic radiation just beyond the red (low-energy) end of the visible spectrum
123.
Visible radiation
Electromagnetic radiation that the human eye can detect; visible radiation has
wavelengths from about 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red)
124.
Ultraviolet radiation
Electromagnetic radiation just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum;
overexposure to this radiation can cause skin damage
125.
Greenhouse gases
Atmospheric substances that absorb infrared radiation, such as CO2, N2O, and CH4
126.
Greenhouse effect
The trapping and returning of infrared radiation to Earth’s surface by atmospheric
substances such as water and carbon dioxide
127.
Temperature and radiation
There are times the temperature of the lower troposphere increases with height, which is
of course opposed to the general trend in the troposphere for warm air to be located below
cooler air
128.
Reflectivity
The proportion of radiation that a material reflects rather than absorbs
129.
Specific Heat capacity
The quantity of thermal energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of a material by 1 ℃;
the expression commonly has units of J/ (g ℃)
130.
Carbon cycle
The movement of carbon atoms within Earth’s ecosystems, from carbon storage as plant
and animal matter, through release as carbon dioxide due to cellular respiration,
combustion, and decay, to reacquisition by plants
131.
Photosynthesis
The process by which green plants and some microorganisms use solar energy to convert
water and carbon dioxide to carbohydrates (stored chemical energy)
132.
Respiration
The sum total of the physical and chemical process in an organism by which oxygen is
conveyed to tissues and cells, and carbon dioxide and water are given off.
133.
Carbon reservoirs
Carbon-storing natural feature that exchanges carbon (a forest or land mass)
134.
Carbon processes
135.
Factors affecting CO2 levels
Automobiles, burning coal, burning natural gas, population, clearing forests
136.
Limiting reactant
The starting substance that is used up first in a chemical reaction
137.
Incomplete combustion
The partial burning of a fuel; the incomplete combustion of carbon, for example,
produces carbon monoxide rather than carbon dioxide
138.
Global climate change
Increased carbon levels from human activity are affecting the climate around the world
139.
CO2 level trends
The amount of CO2 is increasing rapidly because of human activity, burning fossil fuels,
cutting down forests, and population growth
140.
Acid rain
Fog, sleet, snow, or rain with a pH lower than about 5.6 due to dissolved gases
141.
Acid vs. base
Acids can be in solid, liquid, or gas form. Bases are slippery and usually solid. Acids and
bases neutralize each other.
142.
Hydroxide and Hydronium ions
The hydroxide ion is a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−
Hydronium ion is the aqueous cation H3O+, the type of oxonium ion produced by
protonation of water.
143.
STP Standard Temperature and Pressure
standard sets of conditions for experimental measurements, to allow comparisons to be made
between different sets of data
144.
SOx and NOx emissions
SOx
SO2 (g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3 (aq)
SO2 (g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4 (aq)
NOx
145.
NO2(g) + H2O(l) →HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)
Preventing acid rain
Reducing the release of nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides into the atmosphere from
industrial processes, transportation, and power plants
146.
Molar concentration
The concentration determined by dividing the total moles of solute by the solution
volume (expressed in liters)
147.
Neutralization
Combining an acid and a base in amounts that result in the elimination of all excess acid
or base
148.
pH
measure of acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution (7 is neutral)
149.
ionization
the physical process of converting an atom or molecule into an ion by adding or
removing charged particles such as electrons or other ions
150.
photons
Energy bundles of electromagnetic radiation that travel at the speed of light
151.
Diluted vs. concentrated acid / base
152.
Buffer
A substance or combination of dissolved substances capable of resisting changes in pH
when limited quantities of either acid or base are added
153.
Primary air pollutant
A contaminant that directly enters the atmosphere
154.
Secondary air pollutant
A contaminant generated in the atmosphere by chemical reactions between primary air
pollutants and natural components of air
155.
Particulate pollution
Air contaminants made up of small particles suspended in the atmosphere
156.
Synthetic substances and air pollutants
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) - are synthetic substances that have has a variety of
industrial uses. It is believed that CFC's can also contribute to a "greenhouse effect"
resulting in a warming of the earth.
Air pollution is the contamination of the air by harmful substances. These substances ,
called pollutants, can occur naturally or they can be produced by human activities.
157.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Synthetic substances previously used as aerosol propellants, cooling fluids, and cleaning
solvents; can lead to stratospheric ozone destruction through production of chlorine
radicals
158.
Smog
A potentially hazardous combination of smoke and fog
159.
Temperature inversion
An atmospheric condition where a cool air mass is trapped beneath a less-dense warm air
mass; most frequently occurs in a valley or over a city
160.
Photochemical smog
A potentially hazardous mixture of secondary pollutants formed by solar irradiation of
certain primary pollutants in the presence of oxygen.
161.
Electrostatic precipitation
A pollution-control method in which combustion waste products are electrically charged
and then collected on plates of opposite electric charge
162.
Mechanical filtering
A pollution-control method in which the combustion of waste products passes into filters
that trap particles too large to pass through
163.
Scrubbing
A pollution-control method involving an aqueous solution that removes particles and
sulfur oxides from industrial combustion processes
164.
Collision theory
For a reaction to occur, reactant molecules must collide in proper orientation with
sufficient kinetic energy
165.
Activation energy
The minimum energy required for the successful collision of reactant particles in a
chemical reaction
166.
Catalytic converter
The reaction chamber in an auto exhaust system designed to accelerate the conversion of
potentially harmful exhaust gases to nitrogen gas, carbon dioxide, and water vapor
167.
Ozone shield
The protective layer of stratospheric ozone that absorbs intense solar ultraviolet radiation
that is harmful to living organisms
168.
Ozone thinning and location
Over 170 countries have joined the Montreal Protocol, which seeks to reduce CFCs. The
hole in the ozone is over Antarctica
169.
Air quality
Reducing pollutants such as carbon dioxide emissions will improve air quality
170.
Peak time of day for NOx concentrations
12 at noon
171.
Protostar
A large mass that forms by contraction out of the gas of a giant molecular cloud in the
interstellar medium.
172.
What is happening in a star?
Gas pressure pushing out = gravity pulling atoms in
173.
Big Bang Theory
The popular theory that the universe originated from one big bang of molecular activity
174.
Stars life cycles
Process by which a star undergoes a sequence of radical changes during its lifetime
175.
Black Hole
Black holes are massive objects that have collapsed in on them, creating a gravitational
suction so intense that their insides become cut off from the rest of the universe
176.
Nuclear fission/ fusion
Hydrogen, helium, carbon are the three main fuels for fusion in stars
177.
Spectroscopes and telescopes
A spectrometer is an instrument used to measure properties of light over a specific
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, typically used in spectroscopic analysis to
identify materials
A telescope is an instrument that aids in the observation of remote objects by collecting
electromagnetic radiation (such as visible light)
178.
Gravity and equilibrium in stars
Equilibrium is a balance between gravity pulling atoms toward the center and gas
pressure pushing heat and light away from the center
179.
Alpha, beta radiation
Alpha radiation consists of helium nuclei and is readily stopped by a sheet of paper
Beta radiation, consisting of electrons or positrons, is halted by an aluminum plate