Revolutionary Ideas:
Communism in Eastern Europe
A multi-day lesson created under the direction of the UC Berkeley History-Social Science Project.
Jenna Rentz
Sarah Cramsey
Teacher Leader, UCBHSSP
Lecturer, Department of History
Mt. Diablo Unified School District
University of California, Berkeley
Find online: ucbhssp.berkeley.edu/globalhistory2015
2015 © UC Regents
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
Unit Overview
This lesson was created for the second session in the Movement of Ideas in Global History series, cosponsored by the Institute of Slavic, East European and Eurasian Studies and the Institute for Southeast
Asian Studies. The global history seminar series aims to provide classroom teachers with background
knowledge to contextualize historical content, along with learning strategies to help students access and
analyze primary and secondary sources as they study the past. It is supported through a grant from the
UC Berkeley Area Studies Programs: Institute of European Studies, Institute of East Asia Studies, Institute
of Slavic, East European and Eurasian Studies, Institute for Southeast Asian Studies, Center for Middle
Eastern Studies, and the Center for South Asia Studies.
As a result of collaboration between a classroom teacher and a recent doctoral graduate of Department of
History at UC Berkeley, we endeavored to introduce new sources to allow for deeper exploration of the
appeal of communism in the postwar era, applicable to US and world history classrooms.
-----------------------------------------------LESSON OVERVIEW
Historical Context: In American classrooms, students and teachers understand the end of World War II
as a victorious triumph. This multi-part lesson explores why Eastern Europeans were initially drawn to,
and eventually rebelled against, communism as a system of government. For Eastern Europeans in
Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, the war left their cities, governments, and economies in total
ruin. For an Eastern European faced with destruction and loss at every corner, the idea of a communist
society was immensely appealing. Karl Marx’s writings in the late nineteenth century dreamed of a world
where war, poverty, and the selfish desires of humans would become obsolescent through the
development of a classless society. Vladimir Lenin and other revolutionaries in the Soviet Union
attempted to put Marx’s writings into action through the Russian Revolution of 1917, but the utopian
goals of the Soviet communist state evolved into a totalitarian dictatorship under Joseph Stalin’s
leadership. After Stalin’s death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev described Stalin’s failings in his “Secret
Speech,” but he still did not enact reforms to the communist system imposed across the Soviet bloc. The
people’s desires for reform eventually led to uprisings in Poland and Hungary in 1956, and in
Czechoslovakia in 1968. Each of these uprisings were meant to reform, not abolish, a socialist-style
system of government. Not until after the Prague Spring of 1968 did Eastern Europeans protest against
the general system of communism.
This lesson is divided into four sections:
 Ideology of communism
 Promise of communism
 Realities of communism
 Uprisings against communism.
Students should be able to trace Eastern Europeans’ thoughts about communism through these four
categories in order to answer the lesson focus question.
1
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
Unit Overview
Lesson Focus Question: How did Eastern Europeans’ thoughts about communism evolve from the end of
World War II to the 1960s?
Teaching Thesis: After World War II, war-torn and impoverished Eastern European communities
became drawn to the ideologies espoused by Marx and other communist thinkers. The officials leading
the Soviet Union-backed communist parties throughout Eastern Europe, however, did not live up to the
promise of full employment, protection of workers’ rights, democracy and transparency. Khrushchev’s
“Secret Speech” in 1956 further reinforced the failures of Stalinist communism in the Soviet Union.
Beginning in the 1950s and 1960s, many Eastern Europeans attempted to reform and recapture the
promise of communist government through demonstrations and workers’ strikes. These demonstrations
eventually led to general uprisings against the communist governments in Poland and Hungary in 1956,
and in Czechoslovakia in 1968.
Lesson Components
Part 1- Ideology of Communism
A. Students reflect on a quote popularized by Karl Marx and consider the benefits and challenges
of a communist system.
B. Students read quotes from “A Communist Manifesto” and infer why communism might have
appealed to people in Eastern Europe.
C. Students analyze a propaganda poster from the Soviet Union.
Part 2 - Promise of Communism
A. Students read excerpts from Heda Kovaly’s Under a Cruel Star. Through a close reading,
students analyze why Kovaly and other Czechoslovakians were drawn to communism.
Part 3 - Reality of Communism
A. Students read and analyze Nikita Khrushchev’s “Secret Speech” to understand the challenges of
Stalinist communism.
B. Students complete a graphic organizer to understand Khrushchev’s perspective.
Part 4 - Uprisings against Communism
A. Students read and analyze photographs and summary texts about the 1956 Hungarian and
Polish uprisings and the 1968 Prague Spring.
B. Students complete a graphic organizer, exploring short and long term causes of the uprisings.
C. Students write an analytical paragraph in response to the lesson focus question.
2
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
Unit Overview
California History-Social Science Content Standards:
Standard 10. 1. Compare the economic and military power shifts caused by the war, including the
Yalta Pact, the development of nuclear weapons, Soviet control over Eastern European nations,
and the economic recoveries of Germany and Japan.
Standard 10.5. Describe the uprisings in Poland (1956), Hungary (1956), and Czechoslovakia
(1968) and those countries’ resurgence in the 1970s and 1980s as people in Soviet satellites
sought freedom from Soviet control.
Standard 11.9.3 Trace the origins and geopolitical consequences (foreign and domestic) of the
Cold War and containment policy
California Historical and Social Sciences Analysis Skills:
Historical Interpretation
2. Students recognize the complexity of historical causes and effects, including the limitations on
determining cause and effect.
3. Students interpret past events and issues within the context in which an event unfolded rather
than solely in terms of present-day norms and values.
Chronological and Spatial Thinking
1. Students compare the present with the past, evaluating the consequences of past events and
decisions and determining the lessons that were learned.
Common Core Reading Standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies 6-12:
RI.11-12.1. Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says
explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text, including determining where the text leaves
matters uncertain.
RI.11-12.7. Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in different media or
formats (e.g., visually, quantitatively) as well as in words in order to address a question or solve a
problem.
Common Core Writing Standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies 6-12:
WHST-01 Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content.
WHST-04 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style
are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.
3
UNIT MAP – US History
Last Unit
WORLD WAR II
Roots
 Tehran, Yalta, Potsdam
 Churchill Iron Curtain speech
 George Kennan’s Long Telegram:
Containment
 Truman Doctrine
 Marshall Plan
 The Red Scare and McCarthyism
 Berlin blockade and airlift
Current Unit
THE COLD WAR
is about tension and
competition between
the United States and
the USSR
The conflict escalated in
Korea
 38th parallel
 China’s involvement
Next Unit
CIVIL RIGHTS
Cuba
 Bay of Pigs
 Kennedy, Khrushchev and the
Cuban Missile Crisis
End of the Cold War
 SALT treaties
 USSR and Afghanistan
 Gorbachev and Reagan
 Falling of the Berlin Wall
Vietnam
 Third World Nonalignment
Movement
 Gulf of Tonkin resolution
 My Lai massacre
 Tet Offensive
 Anti-War movement
 Nixon’s Mad Man Theory
 Bombing of Cambodia
 Anti-War movement
Focus Question: How did the Cold War shape domestic and foreign policy from 1945 until the early 1990s?
Thinking Skills
Unit Teaching Thesis: Following World War II, the United States, influenced by Churchill's Iron Curtain speech and
 Compare and contrast
George Kennan's Long Telegram, adopted a containment policy towards communism abroad. In 1947, Truman
stated that the United States would come to the aid of any country fighting communism, otherwise known as the
Truman Doctrine. This translated into US foreign aid to Europe in the form of the Marshall Plan, as well as directed
US military intervention in places such as Korea in 1950, Cuba in 1961, and Vietnam in the 1950s-1970s.
Domestically, Americans were fearful of the threat of communism. This fear was capitalized on by Senator Joseph
McCarthy in the 1950s, who led a "witch hunt" to expel accused communists from government, leading to hundreds
of arrests and a general curtailment of civil liberties. Opposition to communism continued to shape domestic and
foreign policy until the fall of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s.
 Analysis
4
UNIT MAP – World History
Last Unit
WORLD WAR II
Roots
 Tehran, Yalta, Potsdam
 Churchill Iron Curtain speech
 George Kennan’s Long Telegram:
Containment
 Truman Doctrine
 Marshall Plan
 The Soviet Union and Eastern
Europe
China
 Chinese Civil War
 Rise of Mao Tse-tung
 Great Leap Forward
Southeast Asia
 Korean War
 Vietnam War
 Cambodia and Pol Pot
Current Unit
THE COLD WAR
is about tension and
competition between
the United States and
the USSR
Next Unit
NATION BUILDING IN THE CONTEMPORARY
WORLD
End of the Cold War
 SALT treaties
 USSR and Afghanistan
 Gorbachev and Reagan
 Falling of the Berlin Wall
 Collapse of Soviet Union
Eastern European
Economic, political, and military
competition escalated in…
Latin America
 Cuba, Bay of Pigs, Cuban Missile
Crisis
 Nicaragua
 Poland and Hungarian
uprising of 1956
 1968 Czechoslovakia
Middle East
 Israel
 Iran
 Iraq
 Afghanistan
Focus Question: Describe the causes and consequences of the Cold War.
Africa
 Egypt
 Congo
 Ethiopia
 Angola
Thinking Skills
Unit Teaching Thesis: The seeds of the Cold War were planted at the World War II conferences of Tehran, Yalta, and
 Compare and contrast
Potsdam. The presidents of the United States, Roosevelt and his successor Truman, had a very different vision of the
post-war world than the leader of the USSR, Joseph Stalin. After WWII ended, several factors increased tensions
between the two countries. Churchill's Iron Curtain speech antagonized Stalin, while the Soviet Union's refusal to
allow elections in Eastern Europe angered Western countries. The conflict escalated in 1948 during the Berlin
blockade; from that point on, the Soviet Union and the United States fought a number of proxy wars around the
world, each attempting to realize their ideological visions. The Cold War ended in the early 1990s, after the falling
of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the breakup of the Soviet Union.
 Analysis
5
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
Primary Sources
"Hungary 1956 - Reading Guide." Hungary 1956 - Reading Guide. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Feb. 2015.
Kovaly, Heda Margoluis. Under a Cruel Star: A Life in Prague, 1941-1968. Translated from the Czech by
Franci Epstein and Helen Epstein with the author. Cambridge, MA: Plunkett Lake Press, 1986.
Krushchev, Nikita. “The Secret Speech- On the Cult of Personality,” delivered on February 25, 1956. Text
found in Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 84th Congress, 2nd Session (May 22,
1956-June 11, 1956), C11, Part 7 (June 4, 1956).
Ladislav Bielik, printed in Smena, http://www.fedorgal.cz/i/library/srpen-1968/full-06.jpg.
Marx, Karl. “Critique of the Gotha Programme,” 1875, in Marx/Engels Selected Works, Vol 3: Progress
Publishers, Moscow, 1970.
What the October Revolution has given – 1920. N.p., n.d. Gosizdat, Moscow.
http://www.iisg.nl/exhibitions/chairman/sov08.php. The Chairman Smiles Collection (Soviet
Posters), International Institute of Social History (Amsterdam).
Wladyka, Wieslaw. Dzieje PRL. Pazdziernik 56, (Warsaw,1994), p. 73.
6
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 1 – Ideology of Communism
PART 1
Understanding the Ideology of Communism
Focus Question: Why would a communist system appeal to people following World War II?
Goal: Students analyze primary sources for their messages about communism.
Lesson Components
A. Students reflect on a quote popularized by Karl Marx and consider the benefits and challenges
of a communist system.
B. Students read excerpts from “A Communist Manifesto” and infer why communism might have
appealed to people in Eastern Europe.
C. Students analyze a propaganda poster from the Soviet Union.
Common Core State Standards:
RH: Reading Standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies, Grades 11-12
1. Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, connecting
insights gained from specific details to an understanding of the text as a whole.
8. Evaluation an author’s premises, claims, and evidence by corroborating or challenging them
with other information.
7
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 1 – Ideology of Communism
A. Benefits & Challenges of a Communist System
Name_________________________________
Directions:
1. Reflect on the following quote from Louis Blanc and popularized by Karl Marx: “From each according
to his ability, to each according to his need.”
2. Consider a society where there is no private property and no classes (rich or poor). Each person
works at a job supporting the community, and all the needs of the people in the community are met.
Brainstorm possible benefits and challenges of such a system.
Benefits:
Challenges:
3. Why would a communist system appeal to people following World War II?
Source: Karl Marx, “Critique of the Gotha Programme,” 1875 included in Marx/Engels Selected Works, Vol 3
(Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1970), 13-30.
8
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 1 – Ideology of Communism
B. Appeal of Communism
Context: In “A Communist Manifesto” (1848), Karl Marx articulated the theories and aims of communists
internationally. He emphasized that this was a worldwide phenomenon in which the working class
(proletariat) would overthrow the wealthy (bourgeoisie) and eventually create a classless society.
Marx outlined some key measures that he believed would be intermediary steps to a classless society in
most countries.
Directions: Read a few of the steps Marx outlined to move towards a classless society. Complete the
chart.
Measures for a Communist System
Rewrite in your own words
Why might people
support this measure?
1. Abolition [ending] of property in land and
application of all rents of land to public
purposes.
2. A heavy progressive or graduated income
tax.
3. Abolition of all rights of inheritance.
5. Centralisation of credit in the hands of the
state, by means of a national bank with State
capital and an exclusive monopoly.
No private banks. All banking
and loans would be handled
by one government bank.
8. Equal liability [responsibility] of all to work.
Establishment of industrial armies, especially
for agriculture.
10. Free education for all children in public
schools. Abolition of children’s factory labour
in its present form. Combination of education
with industrial production.
1. Which of these measures might have appealed to Eastern Europeans after World War II? Why?
2. Which of these measures might people have been unsure about? Why?
Source: Karl Marx, et. al. The Communist Manifesto.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1848.
9
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 1 – Ideology of Communism
B. Appeal of Communism
KEY
Context: In “A Communist Manifesto” (1848), Karl Marx articulated the theories and aims of communists
internationally. He emphasized that this was a worldwide phenomenon in which the working class
(proletariat) would overthrow the wealthy (bourgeoisie) and eventually create a classless society.
Marx outlined some key measures that he believed would be intermediary steps to a classless society in
most countries.
Directions: Read a few of the steps Marx outlined to move towards a classless society. Complete the
chart.
Measures for a Communist System
1. Abolition [ending] of property in land
and application of all rents of land to public
purposes.
Rewrite in your own words
No one owns land; the government
uses all the land for the public
Why might people
support this measure?
Everyone would have a
place to live, without
paying rent or mortgage.
2. A heavy progressive or graduated income The wealthy are taxed more than the
tax.
poor.
There is little or no income
disparity.
3. Abolition of all rights of inheritance.
No one can inherit anything from their
families.
Without generational
wealth, everyone might be
more equal.
5. Centralisation of credit in the hands of
the state, by means of a national bank with
State capital and an exclusive monopoly.
No private banks. All banking and
loans would be handled by one
government bank.
Private banks can’t exploit
the poor.
8. Equal liability [responsibility] of all to
work. Establishment of industrial armies,
especially for agriculture.
Everyone has to work, and there will
be armies used for working, especially
in farms.
Everyone will have a job,
and there will be enough
food.
10. Free education for all children in public
schools. Abolition of children’s factory
labour in its present form. Combination of
education with industrial production.
All children will have a free education
and will not be allowed to work in
factories. As people are educated, they
also learn how to make necessities.
Education is free, and
people learn how to meet
everyone’s basic needs
while in school.
1. Which of these measures might have appealed to Eastern Europeans after World War II? Why?
Answers will vary.
2. Which of these measures might people have been unsure about? Why?
Answers will vary.
Source: Karl Marx, et. al. The Communist Manifesto.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1848.
10
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 1 – Ideology of Communism
C. Understanding Communist Propaganda
Context:
Translation: What the October Revolution has given to women
and working peasants.
Names on the buildings: Library, worker’s club, a school for
adults, and ‘a house for mother and child.’
The final stage of the Russian Revolution occurred in October
of 1917, sometimes called “Red October.” The Bolsheviks (the
communist party), led by Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky,
Joseph Stalin, and others, overthrew the provisional
government of Russia. They established what would
eventually become the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR), or the Soviet Union. As a communist state, the
government of the Soviet Union expressed a commitment to
workers’ rights, peace, and equality.
Source: What the October Revolution has given – 1920. N.p., n.d. Gosizdat,
Moscow. http://www.iisg.nl/exhibitions/chairman/sov08.php The
Chairman Smiles Collection (Soviet Posters), International Institute of
Social History (Amsterdam).
DESCRIPTION OF SOURCE
What do you see?
MEANING
What is the purpose of the images/text?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What argument is the source making about the promise of communism?
11
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 1 – Ideology of Communism
KEY
C. Understanding Communist Propaganda
Context:
Translation: What the October Revolution has given to
women and working peasants.
Names on the buildings: Library, worker’s club, a school for
adults, and ‘a house for mother and child.’
The final stage of the Russian Revolution occurred in
October of 1917, sometimes called “Red October.” The
Bolsheviks (the communist party), led by Vladimir Lenin,
Leon Trotsky, Joseph Stalin, and others, overthrew the
provisional government of Russia. They established what
would eventually become the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR), or the Soviet Union. As a communist
state, the government of the Soviet Union expressed a
commitment to workers’ rights, peace, and equality.
Source: What the October Revolution has given – 1920. N.p., n.d.
Gosizdat, Moscow. http://www.iisg.nl/exhibitions/chairman/sov08.php
The Chairman Smiles Collection (Soviet Posters), International Institute of
Social History (Amsterdam).
DESCRIPTION OF SOURCE
What do you see?
MEANING ~ Answers will vary.
What is the purpose of the images/text?
1. Woman with an apron and hammer
The woman is a worker
2. Woman pointing to buildings
The woman is expressing her belief in communist
progress
3. Library, mensa, workers’ club, school
for adults, and a ‘house for mother
and child’
The communist revolution resulted in progressive
institutions for the Russians
4. Bright sun
The sun is rising on a new era of progress for the Soviet
Union
5.
What argument is the source making about the promise of communism?
The poster is arguing that a communist system, led by empowered workers, especially women, will
provide progressive institutions for the Russian people.
12
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 2 – Promise of Communism
PART 2
The Promise of Communism
Focus Question: Why might communism have appealed to people in post-war Czechoslovakia?
Goal: Using a memoir about one woman’s experiences with communism in Eastern Europe, students
determine the main idea of a passage supported by evidence.
Lesson Components
A. Students read excerpts from Heda Kovaly’s Under a Cruel Star. Through a close reading, students
analyze why Kovaly and other Czechoslovakians were drawn to communism.
Common Core State Standards:
RH: Reading Standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies, Grades 11-12
2. Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate
summary that makes clear the relationships among the key details and ideas.
13
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 2 – Promise of Communism
Name______________________________
Context: Under a Cruel Star is a memoir written by Heda Margolius Kovály, a Czechoslovakian of Jewish
ancestry. Kovály was sent to a concentration camp during World War II and returned to Prague after
escaping a death march at the camp. Her memoir describes the excitement she and many other
Czechoslovaks felt towards communism after the war. Her husband became a high-ranking communist
government official but was later executed. After her husband’s death, Kovály joined others in opposing
the Czechoslovakian communist government.
Directions:
1. Do a quick read of the selected quote from Under a Cruel Star.
2. Using 6-8 words, write a summary of the quoted reason.
3. Read the quotes again, and underline/highlight the specific evidence that supports your reason.
Reason 1: ____________________________________________________________________________
"The step that lay before us, the transition from the freedom of a bird to the freedom among people
proved to be the most difficult part of our journey. We had to find home again, to find the place where we
belonged, and, for that, the simple fact of return was not enough. For many people in Czechoslovakia after
the war, the Communist revolution was just another attempt to find the way home, to fight their way back
to humanity" (25).
Reason 2: ____________________________________________________________________________
"I have often that that many of our people turned to Communism not so much in revolt against the
existing political system, but out of sheer despair over human nature which showed itself at its very
worst after the war. Since it is impossible for men to give up on mankind, they blame the social order in
which they live; they condemn the human condition" (53).
Reason 3: ____________________________________________________________________________
"Why do wars happen? . . . What causes economic depressions? . . . Does God exist? What is truth?
Marxism provides the answers to all these questions and offers solutions to problems which have
plagued mankind since the dawn of history. The great change we are calling for is within our reach:
people can change the conditions under which the live and through this change, man himself will
eventually be transformed” (56).
Reason 4: ____________________________________________________________________________
"Our condition for the revolution had begun in the concentration camps. Perhaps we had been most
impressed by the example of our fellow prisoners, Communists who often behaved like beings of a higher
order. Their idealism and Party discipline gave them a strength and an endurance that the rest of us could
not match. They were like well-trained soldiers in a crowd of children” (60).
Analysis Question: Why might communism have appealed to people in post-war Czechoslovakia?
Source: Heda Margolius Kovaly, Under a Cruel Star: A Life in Prague, 1941-1968.
Translated from the Czech by Franci Epstein and Helen Epstein with the author.
Cambridge, MA: Plunkett Lake Press, 1986.
14
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 2 – Promise of Communism
KEY
Context: Under a Cruel Star is a memoir written by Heda Margolius Kovály, a Czechoslovakian of Jewish
ancestry. Kovály was sent to a concentration camp during World War II and returned to Prague after
escaping a death march at the camp. Her memoir describes the excitement she and many other
Czechoslovaks felt towards communism after the war. Her husband became a high-ranking communist
government official but was later executed. After her husband’s death, Kovály joined others in opposing
the Czechoslovakian communist government.
Directions:
1. Do a quick read of the selected quote from Under a Cruel Star.
2. Using 6-8 words, write a summary of the quoted reason.
3. Read the quotes again, and underline/highlight the specific evidence that supports your reason.
Reason 1: Communism Provides a Sense of Belonging
"The step that lay before us, the transition from the freedom of a bird to the freedom among people
proved to be the most difficult part of our journey. We had to find home again, to find the place where we
belonged, and, for that, the simple fact of return was not enough. For many people in Czechoslovakia after
the war, the Communist revolution was just another attempt to find the way home, to fight their way back
to humanity" (25).
Reason 2: After WWII, People Desired a New System
"I have often thought that many of our people turned to Communism not so much in revolt against the
existing political system, but out of sheer despair over human nature which showed itself at its very
worst after the war. Since it is impossible for men to give up on mankind, they blame the social order in
which they live; they condemn the human condition" (53).
Reason 3: Communism Provided Solutions to Many Social Problems
"Why do wars happen? . . . . What causes economic depressions? . . . . Does God exist? What is truth?
Marxism provides the answers to all these questions and offers solutions to problems which have
plagued mankind since the dawn of history. The great change we are calling for is within our reach:
people can change the conditions under which they live and through this change, man himself will
eventually be transformed (56).”
Reason 4: The Discipline of Communism Provided Strength
"Our condition for the revolution had begun in the concentration camps. Perhaps we had been most
impressed by the example of our fellow prisoners, Communists who often behaved like beings of a higher
order. Their idealism and Party discipline gave them a strength and an endurance that the rest of us could
not match. They were like well-trained soldiers in a crowd of children” (60).
Analysis Question: Why might communism have appealed to people in post-war Czechoslovakia?
Communism provided a sense of home and belonging after the horrors of World War II, and also
promised a solution to help change the depravity of mankind.
Source: Heda Margolius Kovaly, Under a Cruel Star: A Life in Prague, 1941-1968.
Translated from the Czech by Franci Epstein and Helen Epstein with the author.
Cambridge, MA: Plunkett Lake Press, 1986.
15
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 3 – Reality of Communism
PART 3
The Reality of Communism
Focus Question: How might Eastern Europeans living under communist governments have reacted to
Khrushchev’s speech?
Goal: Using background context and a speech, students infer the response of Eastern Europeans based on
an excerpt from Krushchev’s speech.
Lesson Components
A. Students read and analyze Nikita Khrushchev’s “Secret Speech” to understand the challenges of
Stalinist communism.
B. Students complete a graphic organizer to understand Khrushchev’s perspective on communist
leaders.
Common Core State Standards:
RH: Reading Standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies, Grades 11-12
3. Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate
summary that makes clear the relationships among the key details and ideas.
8. Evaluate an author’s premises, claims, and evidence by corroborating or challenging them with
other information.
16
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 3 – Reality of Communism
A. Communism Needs Reform
Name________________________________
Context: Joseph Stalin, the totalitarian leader of the Soviet Union, died in 1953. After his death, several
communist leaders shared power, including Nikita Khrushchev. On February 25, 1956, Khrushchev gave
a secret speech to leaders of the Soviet Communist Party, which was soon leaked throughout Eastern
Europe. Khrushchev’s speech criticized Stalin’s leadership. His statement shocked the Soviet Union and
led many Eastern Europeans to question the communist system. If “Papa Stalin” had failed as a leader,
maybe communism also had shortcomings.
One of Khrushchev’s criticisms was the way Stalin handled a conflict between the Soviet Union and
Yugoslavia. In 1948, Josip Broz Tito, the leader of Yugoslavia, developed an economic plan and other
policies that differed from the Soviet model. In response, Stalin had cut off all ties to Yugoslavia and tried
to have Tito killed. In his secret speech, Khrushchev argued that Tito, not Stalin, had the support of the
working people in Yugoslavia. Eastern Europeans hoped that Khrushchev’s speech indicated that the
Soviet Union would loosen its policies.
Directions: Read the following excerpt from Khrushchev’s secret speech and underline words used to
describe Stalin. Circle words used to describe Tito. Then complete the chart on perspective.
“Stalin acted not through persuasion, explanation, and patient cooperation with people,
but by imposing his concepts and demanding absolute submission to his opinion...
I recall the first days when the conflict between the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia began
artificially to be blown up. Once, when I came from Kiev to Moscow, I was invited to visit
Stalin who, pointing to the copy of a letter lately sent to Tito, asked me, "Have you read
this?"
Not waiting for my reply be answered, "I will shake my little finger and there will be no
more Tito. He will fall.". . .
But this did not happen to Tito. No matter how much or how little Stalin shook, not only
his little finger but everything else that he could shake, Tito did not fall. Why? The reason
was that, in this case of disagreement with the Yugoslav comrades, Tito had behind him a
state and a people who had gone through a severe school of fighting for liberty and
independence, a people which gave support to its leaders.
You see to what Stalin's mania for greatness led. He had completely lost consciousness of
reality; he demonstrated his suspicion and haughtiness not only in relation to individuals
in the USSR, but in relation to whole parties and nations…”
Source: Nikita Khrushchev, “The Secret Speech-On the Cult of Personality,” delivered on February
25, 1956, found in Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 84th Congress, 2nd Session
(May 22, 1956-June 11, 1956), C11, Part 7 (June 4, 1956), pp. 9389-940
17
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 3 – Reality of Communism
B. Understanding Khrushchev’s Perspective
Directions: Fill in the chart using the information from A. Communism Needs Reform and then answer
questions 1-3.
What was Khrushchev’s role in the Soviet Union?
Stalin
Tito
Words Khrushchev used to describe
the leader.
Select a direct quote that best
describes Khrushchev’s perspective
of the leader.
1. What was Khrushchev’s perspective regarding Stalin?
2. What was Khrushchev’s perspective regarding Tito?
3. How might Eastern Europeans living under communist governments have reacted to Khrushchev’s
speech?
18
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 3 – Reality of Communism
B. Understanding Khrushchev’s Perspective
KEY
Directions: Fill in the chart using the information from A. Communism Needs Reform and then answer
questions 1-3.
What was Khrushchev’s role in the Soviet Union?
Khrushchev became a powerful leader in the Soviet Union after Joseph Stalin’s death.
Stalin
Tito
Words Khrushchev used to
describe the leader.
-absolute submission
-suspicion
-haughtiness
-mania for greatness
-did not fall
-behind him a state and a people
-liberty and independence
-support
Select a direct quote that best
describes Khrushchev’s
perspective of the leader.
“He had completely lost
consciousness of reality”
“Tito had behind him a state and
a people who had gone through a
severe school of fighting for
liberty and independence”
1. What was Khrushchev’s perspective regarding Stalin? Khrushchev argued that Stalin was a
disillusioned leader whose “mania for greatness” led him to disregard the people.
2. What was Khrushchev’s perspective regarding Tito? Khrushchev argued that Tito had the support
of the people of Yugoslavia, and therefore was a better leader than Stalin.
3. How might Eastern Europeans living under communist governments have reacted to
Khrushchev’s speech? Eastern Europeans hearing Khrushchev’s words might have desired more
freedom and democracy under the Soviet communist system.
19
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 4 – Uprisings Against Communism
PART 4
Uprisings against Communism
Focus Question: What did the uprisings in Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia have in common?
Goal: Using background context and photographs, students analyze responses to the imposition of a
communist system.
Lesson Components
A. Students read and analyze photographs and summary texts about the 1956 Hungarian and Polish
uprisings and the 1968 Prague Spring.
B. Students complete a graphic organizer, exploring short and long term causes of the uprisings.
C. Students write an analytical paragraph in response to the lesson focus question.
Common Core State Standards:
RH: Reading Standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies, Grades 11-12
9. Integrate information from diverse sources, both primary and secondary, into a coherent
understanding of an idea or event, noting discrepancies among sources.
WHST: Writing Standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies, Grades 11-12
1. Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content.
9. Draw evidence from informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research.
20
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 4 – Uprisings Against Communism
A. Regional Responses to Communism
Wladyslaw Gomulka, a communist leader,
speaks to the people of Warsaw, Poland in 1956.
Source: Wieslaw Wladyka, Dzieje PRL. Pazdziernik 56,
(Warsaw,1994), p. 73.
A man spits on decapitated head of
Stalin’s statue in Hungary, 1956.
A man protests in front of Soviet tank in Prague,
Czechoslovakia in 1968.
Source: "Hungary 1956 - Reading Guide."
Hungary 1956 - Reading Guide. N.p., n.d. Web.
01 Feb. 2015.
Source: Ladislav Bielik, printed in Smena,
http://www.fedorgal.cz/i/library/srpen-1968/full-06.jpg
Context: Polish October (1956) and Hungarian Uprising (1956).
Both the Polish and Hungarian uprisings must be understood in relation to Joseph Stalin’s
death in 1953 and Nikita Khrushchev’s “Secret Speech” in 1956, which opened the gates
for Eastern European countries to make reforms to communism.
 In 1956, workers in Poznan, a city in eastern Poland, protested shortages of food
and consumer goods, bad housing, a decline in real income, trade relations with the
Soviet Union and poor management of the economy.
 The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 began as student protests against the leadership
regime but ended in a nationwide actions calling for reforms of the system and a
withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. The Hungarian Revolution (as opposed to the
Polish October) ended violently with Soviet tanks in the streets, street fighting, and
the execution of the Hungarian revolutionary leader, Imre Nagy.
Context: Prague Spring (1968)
The Prague Spring united students and workers
in calling for reforms within the communist
party. In early 1968, Alexander Dubcek assumed
leadership of the communist party and pressed
for specific reforms, such as ending censorship
laws. Warsaw Pact forces invaded Prague in
1968 because the censorship reforms demanded
too much change. The Brezhnev Doctrine,
articulated by Soviet leaders, made it clear that
the USSR would violently repress reforms in the
Eastern Bloc if they strayed too far from Soviet
doctrine.
21
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 4 – Uprisings Against Communism
B. Exploring Short & Long Term Causes of the Uprisings
Background Info: After Khrushchev’s “Secret Speech,” many people in Eastern Europe expected the
Soviet Union to reform and give more power back to the people. Reforms did not happen, however, and
people in Eastern Europe became increasingly frustrated with poor economic conditions and a lack of
political freedom. Eventually, these conditions led to popular uprisings in Poland, Hungary and
Czechoslovakia.
Directions: Read A. Regional Responses to Communism. Underline any short-term causes for the
uprising and put a star next to any long-term causes for the uprising. Finally, complete the following
graphic organizer and questions.
Short-term Causes
Long-term Causes
Poland
Hungary
Czechoslovakia
1. What did the uprisings in Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia have in common?
2. How were the governments in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia different than the government
of Yugoslavia?
22
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 4 – Uprisings Against Communism
KEY
B. Exploring Short & Long Term Causes of the Uprisings
Background Info: After Khrushchev’s “Secret Speech,” many people in Eastern Europe expected the
Soviet Union to reform and give more power back to the people. Reforms did not happen, however, and
people in Eastern Europe became increasingly frustrated with poor economic conditions and a lack of
political freedom. Eventually, these conditions led to popular uprisings in Poland, Hungary and
Czechoslovakia.
Directions: Read A. Regional Responses to Communism. Underline any short-term causes for the
uprising and put a star next to any long-term causes for the uprising. Finally, complete the following
graphic organizer and questions.
Short-term Causes
Long-term Causes
-Polish workers protested food shortages
and poor economic conditions
Poland
-Joseph Stalin’s death
-Khrushchev’s secret speech
-students protested against the regime
Hungary
-Hungarians protested the Warsaw Pact
-the leader, Alexander Dubcek, called for
reforms
Czechoslovakia
-Eastern Europeans’ desire for reform
-people demanded changes to censorship
laws
1. What did the uprisings in Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia have in common? The uprisings in
Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia all occurred because people wanted to reform the
communist system to include more rights for the people.
2. How were the governments in Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia different than the
government of Yugoslavia? The governments of Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia were
different than the government of Yugoslavia because Tito, Yugoslavia’s leader, had the support of
his people.
23
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 4 – Uprisings Against Communism
C. Prewriting Exercise
Ideology of Communism
Define the ideals of
communism according to Karl
Marx.
Name_________________________________
Promise of Communism
Why does Heda Kovaly say she
and others were attracted to
the system of communism?
Limits of Communism
What did Khrushchev say
about communism under
Stalin?
22
Reform and revolt
How did Eastern Europeans
express their discontent with
the communist system?
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 4 – Uprisings Against Communism
KEY
C. Prewriting Exercise
Ideology of Communism
Define the ideals of
communism according to Karl
Marx.
Promise of Communism
Why does Heda Kovaly say she
and others were attracted to
the system of communism?
Limits of Communism
What did Khrushchev say
about communism under
Stalin?
Reform and revolt
How did Eastern Europeans
express their discontent with
the communist system?
Ideally, communism is a
system where there is no
private property, workers
have rights and equality, and
everyone works for the
common good.
Kovaly was attracted to
communism because it offered
hope and solutions to wartorn Czechoslovakia.
Khrushchev argues that Stalin
did not listen to the will of the
people, and was only focused
on his own power. This
weakened the communist
government in the Soviet
Union.
Eastern Europeans expressed
their discontent with the
communist system through
the 1956 uprisings in Poland
and Hungary, and the Prague
Spring in 1968.
23
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 4
C. Analytical Paragraph
Name__________________________________
Focus Question: How did Eastern Europeans’ thoughts about communism evolve from the end of World
War II to the 1960s?
Directions: Write an analytical paragraph with the following guidelines:
 Answer the focus question with a well-developed thesis.
 Include at least one quote from Under a Cruel Star.
 Include evidence regarding the:
 Ideology of communism
 Promise of communism
 Realities of communism
 Uprisings against communism
Thesis: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Evidence: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Analysis: _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Evidence (Quote): ___________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Analysis: _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Evidence: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Analysis: _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Concluding Sentence:_______________________________________________________________________________________________
24
Revolutionary Ideas: Communism in Eastern Europe
PART 4
C. Analytical Framed Paragraph
Name__________________________________
Focus Question: How did Eastern Europeans’ thoughts about communism evolve from the end of World
War II to the 1960s?
Directions: Write an analytical paragraph with the following guidelines:
 Answer the focus question with a well-developed thesis.
 Include at least one quote from Under a Cruel Star.
 Include evidence regarding the:
 Ideology of communism
 Promise of communism
 Realities of communism
 Uprisings against communism
Eastern Europeans thoughts about communism evolved from _____________________________________________
to ______________________________________________________ (thesis). Communism is a system of government that
____________________________________________________________________________________________________(ideology).
Eastern Europeans were attracted to communism because __________________________________________________
(promise). For instance, Heda Kovaly, a __________________________________ (biography) wrote _________________
____________________________________________________ (quote). This means that _______________________________________
_______________________ (analysis). However, the Soviet Union and Eastern European governments did not
live up to the promise of communism. In Yugoslavia, for instance, _______________________________ (reality).
This led to ___________________________________________________________________________________________(uprisings).
In conclusion, communism _______________________________________________________________________________________.
25