NOUNS:
A noun is the word that refers to a person, thing or abstract idea. A noun can tell you who or what.
Different types of nouns:
1.
Abstract Nouns:
An abstract noun is a noun that you cannot sense, it is the name we give to an emotion,
ideal or idea. They have no physical existence, you can't see, hear, touch, smell or taste
them. The opposite of an abstract noun is a concrete noun
For example:
justice, an idea, bravery and happiness are all abstract nouns
Here is an a-z list of some common abstract nouns:
adoration
charity
ego
happiness
impression
love
peace
romance
success
2.
artistry
childhood
failure
hate
infatuation
loyalty
pride
sadness
sympathy
belief
comfort
faith
honesty
joy
maturity
principle
sensitivity
talent
bravery
compassion
feelings
hope
law
memory
power
skill
thrill
calm
dexterity
friendship
idea
liberty
omen
redemption
sleep
wit
Collective Nouns:
A collective noun is a noun that is singular in form but refers to a group of people or things.
Sometimes they refer to a group of specific things.
For example:
Tables, chairs, cupboards etc. are grouped under the collective noun furniture.
Plates, saucers, cups and bowls are grouped under the collective noun crockery.
These collective nouns are often uncountable.
Sometimes they are more general:
For example:
Groups of people - army, audience, band, choir, class, committee, crew, family,
gang, jury, orchestra, police, staff, team, trio
Groups of animals - colony, flock, herd, pack, pod, school, swarm
Groups of things - bunch, bundle, clump, pair, set, stack
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When such a group is considered as a single unit, the collective noun is used with a singular
verb and singular pronouns.
For example:
The committee has reached its decision.
But when the focus is on the individual members of the group, British English uses a plural
verb and plural pronouns.
For example:
"The committee have been arguing all morning." This is the same as saying "The
people in the committee have been ...."
A determiner in front of a singular collective noun is always singular: this committee,
never these committee (but of course when the collective noun is pluralized, it takes a plural
determiner: these committees).
3.
Common Nouns:
A common noun is a word that names people, places, things, or ideas. They are not the
names of a single person, place or thing.
A common noun begins with a lowercase letter unless it is at the beginning of a sentence
For example:
People:
man, girl, boy, mother, father, child, person, teacher, student
Animals:
cat, dog, fish, ant, snake
Things:
book, table, chair, phone
Places:
school, city, building, shop
Ideas:
love, hate, idea, pride
4.
Compound Nouns:
A compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. Most compound nouns
in English are formed by nouns modified by other nouns or adjectives.
For example:
The words tooth and paste are each nouns in their own right, but if you join them
together they form a new word –toothpaste.
The word black is an adjective and board is a noun, but if you join them together they
form a new word – blackboard.
In both these example the first word modifies or describes the second word, telling us what
kind of object or person it is, or what its purpose is. And the second part identifies the object
or person in question.
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Compound nouns can also be formed using the following combinations of words: Noun
Adjective
Verb
Preposition
Noun
Noun
Adjective
Preposition
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Noun
Noun
Noun
Noun
Verb
Preposition
Verb
Verb
toothpaste
monthly ticket
swimming pool
underground
haircut
hanger on
dry-cleaning
output
The two parts may be written in a number of ways:
A.
Sometimes the two words are joined together.
Example: tooth + paste = toothpaste | bed + room = bedroom
B.
Sometimes they are joined using a hyphen.
Example: check-in
C.
Sometimes they appear as two separate words.
Example: full moon
Compound Words:
Often, the meaning of a compound word cannot be discovered by knowing the meaning of
the different words that form it. Compounds can be written either as one word or as separate
words (sometimes hyphenated).
A
afterthought, airplane, another, anybody, anyhow, anyone, anything, anywhere
B
backbone, backspace, backwoods, become, bedroom, beeswax, birthday
C
carefree, caretaker, carpet, chairman, clockwork, commonsense, copyright
D
daylight, dead weight, downfall, downstairs
E
earring, earthwork, evergreen, everybody, everyday, everything, eyeball
F
fatherland, fingerprint, firearm, fire-engine, firefly, fireman, fireplace, floppy disk
G
goalkeeper, goldfish, good-morning, goodnight, gunboat, gunmetal, gunpowder
H
haircut, handbook, handwriting, headland, headphones, headstone, hereafter
I
inasmuch, income, indoors, inland, inlet, input, inside, instep, into, itself
J
joystick
K
keyboard
L
landmark, landslip, lawsuit, lighthouse, lipstick, loanshark, looking-glass, loophole
M
manhandle, manhole, meeting room, moonlight, myself
3
5.
N
network, newspaper, nobody, nothing, nowhere
O
offspring, oncoming, onlooker, ourselves, outburst, outcome, outcry, outlaw
P
pincushion, plaything , policeman, policewoman, postman, postmark, postmaster
R
railway, receivership, runway, runaway
S
seaman, secondhand, shorthand, shutdown, sidewalk, skyscraper, somebody
T
themselves, timesheet, today, tonight, toothpaste, tradesman
U
underclothing, undercooked, undergo, undermined, undersigned, undersized
V
viewpoint
W
waterfall, weekend, well-being, whatever, whereas, without, woodwork, workhouse
X
x-ray
Y
yearbook, yourself
Z
zookeeper
Concrete Nouns:
A concrete noun is the name of something or someone that we experience through our
senses, sight, hearing, smell, touch or taste. Most nouns are concrete nouns. The opposite
of a concrete noun is an abstract noun.
For example:
Cats, dogs, tables, chairs, buses, and teachers are all concrete nouns
6.
Countable Nouns:
A noun can be countable or uncountable.
Countable nouns can be "counted", they have a singular and plural form.
For example:
A book, two books, three books. . .
An apple, two apples, three apples. . .
Uncountable nouns (also called mass nouns or non-count nouns) cannot be counted, they
are not separate objects. This means you cannot make them plural by adding -s, because
they only have a singular form. It also means that they do not take a/an or a number in front
of them.
For example:
Water, Work, Information, Coffee, Sand
Countable
(use a/an or a number in front
of countable nouns)
An Apple / 1 Apple
I eat an apple every day.
Uncountable
(there is no a/an or number
with uncountable nouns)
Rice
I eat rice every day. (not I eat a rice every day.)
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Add (s) to make a
countable noun plural
apples
I eat an apple every day.
Apples are good for you.
There is no plural form for
an uncountable noun
rice
I eat rice every day.
Rice is good for you
To make uncountable nouns countable
add a counting word, such as a unit of
measurement, or the general word piece.
We use the form "a ....... of ......."
Rice = a grain of rice
Water = a glass of water
Rain = a drop of rain
Music = a piece of music
A computer = Computers are fun.
An elephant = Elephants are large.
You can use some and
any with countable nouns
Some dogs can be dangerous.
I don't use any computers at work.
You can use some and
any with uncountable nouns
I usually drink some wine with my meal.
I don't usually drink any water with my wine.
You only use many and few
with plural countable nouns
So many elephants have been hunted
that they are an endangered species.
You only use much and
little with uncountable nouns
I don't usually drink much coffee.
Little wine is undrinkable though.
You can use a lot of and no
with plural countable nouns
No computers were bought last week.
A lot of computers were
reported broken the week before.
You can use a lot of and
no with uncountable nouns
A lot of wine is drunk in France.
No wine is drunk in Iran.
Making uncountable nouns countable.
You can make most uncountable noun countable by putting a countable expression in front
of the noun.
For example:
A piece of information.
2 glasses of water.
10 liters of coffee.
Three grains of sand.
A pane of glass.
Sources of confusion with countable and uncountable nouns:
The notion of countable and uncountable can be confusing.
Some nouns can be countable or uncountable depending on their meaning. Usually a noun
is uncountable when used in a general, abstract meaning (when you don't think of it as a
separate object) and countable when used in a particular meaning (when you can think of it
as a separate object).
For example:
glass - A glass of water. (countable)
A window made of glass. (uncountable)
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Some supposedly uncountable nouns can behave like countable nouns if we think of them
as being in containers, or one of several types.
This is because 'containers' and 'types' can be counted.
Believe it or not each of these sentences is correct:
Doctors recommend limiting consumption to two coffees a day.
(Here coffees refers to the number of cups of coffee)
You could write; "Doctors recommend limiting consumption to two cups of coffee a day.”
The coffees I prefer are Arabica and Brazilian.
(Here coffees refers to different types of coffee)
You could write; "The types of coffee I prefer are Arabica and Brazilian."
7.
Gerunds:
A gerund (often known as an -ing word) is a noun formed from a verb by adding -ing. It can
follow a preposition, adjective and most often another verb.
For example:
I enjoy walking.
8.
Plural Nouns:
Plural Noun Forms:
A.
Regular Plurals:
The plural form of most nouns is created simply by adding the letter 's' to the end of
the word.
For example:
minute - minutes / horse - horses / bag - bags
Nouns that end in -ch, -x, -s, -sh, z or s-like sounds, the plural is formed by adding 'es'
to the end of the word.
For example:
church - churches / box - boxes / gas - gases / bush - bushes / ass - asses
Nouns that end in a single -z, the plural is formed by adding 'zes' to the end of the
word.
For example:
quiz - quizzes
Most nouns ending in -o preceded by a consonant also form their plurals by adding
'es'.
For example:
potato - potatoes / tomato - tomatoes / volcano - volcanoes
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However many newly created words and words with a Spanish or Italian origin that
end in -o just add an 's'.
For example:
photo - photos / piano - pianos / portico - porticos
Nouns ending in a consonant + y, drop the y and add 'ies'.
For example:
party - parties / lady - ladies
Most nouns ending in -f or -fe, drop the f and add 'ves'.
For example:
calf - calves / half - halves / wolf - wolves
Most words ending in -is, drop the -is and add –es.
For example:
crisis - crises / hypothesis - hypotheses / oasis - oases
B.
Irregular Plurals:
There are many common nouns that have irregular plurals.
Many common nouns connected with human beings seem to be irregular.
For example:
child - children / person - people / man - men / woman - women
Other irregular common nouns are:
foot - feet / mouse - mice / tooth - teeth
Some nouns have identical plural and singular forms, although they are still
considered to have a plural form.
For example:
aircraft - aircraft / fish - fish / headquarters - headquarters / species - species
Uncountable nouns on the other hand have no plural form and take a singular verb
(is / was ...).
For example:
advice / information / luggage / news
Some nouns (especially those associated with two things) exist only in the plural form
and take a plural verb (are / were...).
For example:
cattle / scissors / trousers / tweezers / congratulations / pajamas
Nouns that stem from older forms of English or are of foreign origin often have odd
plurals.
For example:
ox - oxen | index - indices or indexes
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In compound nouns the plural ending is usually added to the main noun.
For example:
son-in-law = sons-in-law / passer-by = passers-by
C.
Words ending in – us:
Linguists can argue for hours about the plural ending of nouns ending in -us. Many of
these words are loanwords from Latin and preserve their Latin plural form, replacing
the -us suffix with -i, but of course not all words ending in -us have a Latin origin, and
some Latin words ending in -us were not pluralized with -i. hence the argument.
For example:
The English plural of virus is viruses, not viri.
Other Latin loanwords that take the regular English plural -es ending include:
campus - campuses / bonus - bonuses
Latin loanwords that take a -i plural ending include:
radius - radii / alumnus - alumni
If you want to bait a linguist ask them if the plural of crocus is crocuses or croci, or
whether the plural of octopus is octopuses, octopi or octopodes.
Note! Some nouns just create controversy. Did you know that the proper plural
spelling for roof is rooves and not the more common roofs?
9.
Predicate Nouns:
A predicate noun follows a form of the verb "to be".
He is an idiot. (Here idiot is a predicate noun because it follows is; a form of the verb "be".)
A predicate noun renames the subject of a sentence.
Margaret Thatcher was the Prime Minister. (Margaret Thatcher is the subject and Prime
Minister is the predicate noun - notice it follows 'was' the past tense of 'to be'.)
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10.
Proper Nouns:
Proper nouns (also called proper names) are the words which name specific people,
organizations or places. They always start with a capital letter.
A.
Each part of a person's name is a proper noun:
For example:
Michael Jackson / Rudyard Kipling
B.
The names of companies, organizations or trademarks:
For example:
Microsoft / Rolls Royce / Google / UNICEF
C.
Given or pet names of animals:
For example:
Lassie / Trigger / Sam
D.
The names of cities and countries and words derived from those proper nouns:
For example:
Paris / London / New York / England / English
E.
Geographical and Celestial Names:
For example:
the Red Sea / the Galaxy / Mars
F.
Monuments, buildings, meeting rooms:
For example:
The Taj Mahal / The London Bridge / Room 246
G.
Historical events, documents, laws, and periods:
For example:
the Civil War / the Industrial Revolution / World War II
H.
Months, days of the week, holidays:
For example:
Monday / Christmas / December
I.
Religions, deities, scriptures:
For example:
God / Christ / Jehovah / Christianity / Judaism / Islam / the Bible / the Koran
J.
Awards, vehicles, vehicle models and names, brand names:
For example:
the Nobel Peace Prize / the Scout Movement / Ford Focus / Colgate / Hoover
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PRONOUNS:
Personal Pronoun - Subject
Personal Pronoun - Object
Possessive Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
I
me
my
myself
you
you
your
yourself
he/she/it
him/her/it
his/hers/its
himself/herself/itself
we
us
ours
ourselves
they
them
theirs
themselves
A pronoun usually refers to something already mentioned in a sentence or piece of text. They are
used instead of nouns to prevent repetition of the noun to which they refer. One of the most
common pronouns is it.
Example (Singular):
Without a pronoun:
The train was late, the train had been delayed. (Sounds terrible, doesn't it?)
With a pronoun:
The train was late, it had been delayed. (Much better!)
In this example the train is singular, therefore the pronoun must be singular also – it.
Example (Plural):
Without a pronoun:
The trains were late, the trains had been delayed. (Still sounds terrible, doesn't it?)
With a pronoun:
The trains were late, they had been delayed. (Much better!)
In this example the trains are plural, therefore the pronoun must be plural also – they.
1.
Indefinite Pronouns:
Indefinite pronouns refer to things or people without mentioning what or who they are.
Singular:
Plural:
Singular
or Plural
another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone,
everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other,
somebody, someone, something
both, few, many, others, several
all, any, more, most, none, some
For example:
Somebody stole my car.
Does anybody know who she is?
Does anyone have something that could help me with anything?
Note!
For people we use: anybody or anyone | somebody or someone | nobody or no one
For things we use: anything, something, nothing, none
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See if you can make sense of these:
Somebody, Everybody, Anybody, and Nobody:
Once there were four managers. Their names were: Somebody, Everybody, Anybody, and
Nobody. They were very busy people, but whenever there was an important job to be done,
Everybody was sure that Somebody would do it. Anybody could have done it, but Nobody
did. When Nobody did it, Everybody got angry because it was Everybody's job. Everybody
thought that Somebody would do it, but Nobody realized that Nobody would do it. So
consequently Everybody blamed Somebody when Nobody did what Anybody could have
done in the first place
The competition
Now they all worked in the same company, and their company held a competition: Who
could produce the best logo? Everybody had a good idea. Nobody thought nobody would
follow it through. Somebody thought anybody could work on it. Anybody thought everybody
should do it. Everybody thought someone would do it. So nobody did anything. Everybody
thought anybody could win something. Anybody thought somebody should win. Somebody
thought everybody would win. Nobody thought nobody would win. What did they win?
Nothing!
2.
Personal Pronouns:
Personal Pronoun - Subject
Personal Pronoun - Object
I
me
you
you
he/she/it
him/her/it
we
us
they
them
The personal pronoun is used to refer to someone or something already mentioned (he, she,
it etc.), or to refer to the person speaking (I, me etc.) or the person listening (you).
First Person Pronoun
singular
plural
Second Person Pronoun
singular
plural
Third Person Pronoun
singular
plural
a person
people
thing
things or people
=
=
=
=
FORM
FUNCTION
I
me
we
us
subject
object
subject
object
you
you
you
you
subject
object
subject
object
he, she, it
him, her, it
they
them
subject
object
subject
object
I, me, he, she, him, her, you
you, we, us
it
they, them
Note! When you are writing in English "I" (first person singular) is always capitalized.
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3.
Possessive Pronouns:
The possessive pronoun shows who the thing being referred to belongs to or is associated
with.
You
I
(singular and plural)
He / She / It
Possessive Pronouns
mine
yours
his / hers / its
In English these pronouns change form to show their function.
We
ours
They
theirs
Form
First Person Pronoun
singular
plural
Second Person Pronoun
singular
plural
Third Person Pronoun
singular
plural
mine
ours
yours
yours
his, hers, its
theirs
For example:
Q.
Whose is this web site?
A.
It's mine.
Q.
Does Arnold own this web site?
A.
Yes, it's his.
Q.
Does Arnold own the Internet?
A.
No. It's ours.
Note! my, your, his/her/its, our and their are possessive determiners
(sometimes called possessive adjectives).
Watch out for the following:
Possessive Pronoun
its
(no apostrophe)
4.
Short Form of 'it is'
it's
(with apostrophe)
Reflexive Pronouns:
I
Reflexive
Pronouns
myself
he/she/it
himself /
herself / itself
you
(singular)
you
(plural)
we
they
yourself
yourselves
ourselves
themselves
A reflexive pronoun shows that when someone or something affected by an action is the
same as the person or thing doing it. This form is used less in English than some other
languages.
For example:
She looked at herself in the mirror.
He washed himself.
They tested themselves.
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VERBS:
Overview of Verbs:
Verbs are a class of words used to show the performance of an action (do, throw, run),
existence (be), possession (have), or state (know, love) of a subject. To put it simply a verb
shows what something or someone does.
Most statements in speech and writing have a main verb. These verbs are expressed
in tenses which place everything in a point in time.
Verbs have moods, which indicate the viewpoint of the verb, whether it is a fact, a command or
hypothetical.
Verbs have a voice too. The voice shows whether the subject of a sentence is carrying out an
action, or is having an action carried out on it.
Verbs are conjugated (inflected) to reflect how they are used. There are two general areas in
which conjugation occurs; for person and for tense.
Conjugation for tense is carried out on all verbs. All conjugations start with the infinitive form of
the verb. The infinitive is simply the to form of the verb For example, to begin. The present
participle form (the -ing form), is formed by adding ing to the bare infinitive. For example, the
present participle of the verb to begin is beginning. There are two other forms that the verb can
take, depending on the tense type and time, the simple past form (began) and the past participle
(begun).
Conjugation for person occurs when the verb changes form, depending on whether it is
governed by a first, second, or third person subject. This gives three conjugations for any verb
depending on who is acting as the subject of the verb. For example, we have: to begin, you
begin, and he begins. Note that only the third conjunction really shows a difference.
While most English verbs simply do not show extensive conjugation forms for person, an
exception is the verb to be.
1.
Action Verbs:
Action verbs are verbs that show the performance of an action. They are dynamic verbs
that show something happening.
There are regular and irregular action verbs.
For example:
To walk is a regular action verb.
To run is an irregular action verb.
2.
Auxiliary Verbs:
Auxiliary verbs are used together with a main verb to give grammatical information and
therefore add extra meaning to a sentence. Information that is not given by the main verb.
They are used to form the passive voice.
They are used to form the continuous tense.
They are used to form the perfect tense.
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Be, Do and Have are auxiliary verbs, they are irregular verbs and can be used as main
verbs. The verbs 'to be' and 'to have' are the most commonly used auxiliary verbs and
work alongside the main verbs in any statement.
Modal verbs are also auxiliary verbs, but will be treated separately, these are can, could,
may, might, must, shall, should, will, and would, they differ from the others in that they
can never function as a main verb.
3.)
Finite / Non Finite Verbs:
A.
Finite Verbs:
A finite verb (sometimes called main verbs) is a verb that has a subject; this means
that it can be the main verb in a sentence. It shows tense (past / present etc) or
number (singular / plural).
For example:
I live in Germany. (I is the subject - live describes what the subject does - live is
a finite verb).
B.
Non-Finite Verbs:
A non-finite verb has no subject, tense or number. The only non-finite verb forms are
the infinitive (indicated by to), the gerund or the participle.
For example:
I travelled to Germany to improve my German. (To improve is in the infinitive
form).
4.)
Irregular Verbs:
Irregular verbs have no rules for conjugation. These can only be learnt in context – sorry!
They all have a base form. e.g. to run
A gerund (ing) form where ing is added to the end of the verb. e.g. running
An -s form where s is added to the end of the verb. e.g. runs
A past tense form which must be learnt. e.g. ran
A past participle form which must be learnt. e.g. run
5.)
Modal Verbs:
All the auxiliary verbs except be, do and have are called modals. Unlike other auxiliary
verbs modals only exist in their helping form; they cannot act alone as the main verb in a
sentence.
Be, do, and have also differ from the other auxiliaries in that they can also serve as
ordinary verbs in a given sentence.
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The modal verbs are:
Can / Could / May / Might / Must / Shall / Should / Ought to / Will / Would
Modal
Can
Could
May
Might
Must
Ought to
Shall
(More
common
in the UK
than the US)
Should
Will
Would
Example
They can control their own budgets.
We can’t fix it.
Can I smoke here?
Can you help me?
Could I borrow your dictionary?
Could you say it again more slowly?
We could try to fix it ourselves.
I think we could have another Gulf War.
He gave up his old job so he could work for us.
May I have another cup of coffee?
China may become a major economic power.
We'd better phone tomorrow,
they might be eating their dinner now.
They might give us a 10% discount.
We must say good-bye now.
They mustn’t disrupt the work
more than necessary.
We ought to employ
a professional writer.
Shall I help you with your luggage?
Uses
Ability / Possibility
Inability / Impossibility
Asking for permission
Request
Asking for permission.
Request
Suggestion
Future possibility
Ability in the past
Asking for permission
Future possibility
Present
possibility
Future possibility
Necessity / Obligation
Shall we say 2:30 pm then?
Suggestion
Shall I do that or will you?
We should sort out
this problem at once.
I think we should check everything again.
Profits should increase next year.
I can’t see any taxis so I’ll walk.
I'll do that for you if you like.
I’ll get back to you first thing on Monday.
Profits will increase next year.
Would you mind if I brought a friend with me?
Would you pass the salt please?
Would you mind waiting a moment?
"Would 3:00 pm suit you?" - "That’d be fine."
Would you like to play golf this Friday?
"Would you prefer tea or coffee?" –
“I’d like tea pls.”
Asking what to do
Saying what’s
right or correct
Recommending action
Uncertain prediction
Instant decisions
Offer
Promise
Certain prediction
Asking for permission
Request
Request
Making arrangements
Invitation
Prohibition
Saying what’s
right or correct
Offer
Preferences
Note! The modal auxiliary verbs are always followed by the base form.
The verb used to, can also be used like a modal verb.
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6.
Mood:
Yes, verbs have moods, not good moods and bad moods though, they're not actually
moody, here “mood” (sometimes 'mode') comes from the Latin for 'manner'. The so called
mood of the verb simply expresses the viewpoint of the speaker or writer; their wishes,
intents, or assertions about reality.
In English there are three moods:
A.
The indicative mood is the most common one; it is used to state facts, to deny
things, or ask a question.
The indicative mood (sometimes referred to as the 'declarative mood', 'evidential
mood', 'common mood',' or 'fact mood') is the one you're most likely to use. It states
facts. Most sentences; statements and questions use the indicative mood
For example:
England is green.
Why is England green?
Because it rains a lot in England.
Note! Some linguists like to talk about the 'interrogative mood' for questions.
B.
The imperative mood is used to give commands.
The imperative mood (often referred to simply as a command) is used to express
demands, instructions or requests.
We usually use the second person (plural or singular) with an unspoken "you" for the
subject.
When you're feeling bossy you can use the imperative.
For example:
Come in!
Shut that door.
Turn that computer off now!
You can also tell people not to do something.
For example:
Don't eat that gummy bear!
This can all seem a bit rude really, so you can soften the command:
For example:
Please, come in.
Shut the door, please.
The exception to the use of the second person is when you want to include yourself
in your suggestion, here we use "Let's ....".
For example:
Let's go to the canteen.
16
If you can't see the difference between saying to someone "Go to the pub", and
"Let's go to the pub," you might never get to go to the pub yourself.
Let's stop now, I'm getting a headache.
C.
The least used mood, but the one that gives people the most trouble, is
the subjunctive mood. The subjunctive mood is usually used to express doubt or
show that a situation is hypothetical.
The subjunctive mood (sometimes called conjunctive mood) is used a lot less than
the imperative and indicative in English. In fact if you learn British English you can
spend a lifetime avoiding it if you want to. Most native speakers do.
It's easy to miss the subjunctive, because the form of the verb is usually the same as
it is for the indicative, apart from the verb 'to be' and the subjunctive for the present
tense third person singular, which drops the -s or –es.
The subjunctive is typically used after:
the verbs: ask, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend, request,
suggest
the expressions: it is desirable, essential, important, necessary, vital
if, as if, and wish
For example:
I suggest you reconsider.
It is essential that she hand in her homework on time.
The subjunctive mood is used to express unreal situations; wishes, hypothetical
situations, etc.
For example:
I wish I had more time to spend online.
The verb that causes the most problems in the subjunctive mood is the verb 'to be'.
In the subjunctive we use 'be' in the present tense and 'were' in the past tense,
regardless of the subject.
For example:
If I were rich I would buy a plane and travel round the world.
If he were rich he would buy a plane and travel round the world.
If they were rich they would buy a plane and travel round the world.
The reason for the decline of the subjunctive in British English is that we prefer to
use modal verbs. The modal auxiliaries do not have present subjunctive forms, but if
I were you, I wouldn't worry about it too much.
17
7.
Phrasal Verbs:
A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and preposition, a verb and an adverb, or a verb
with both an adverb and a preposition.
A phrasal verb has a meaning which is different from the original verb. That's what makes
them fun, but confusing. You may need to try to guess the meaning from the context, or,
failing that, look it up in a dictionary.
The adverb or preposition that follows the verb, are sometimes called a particle. The
particle changes the meaning of the phrasal verb in idiomatic ways.
They are also known as ‘compound verbs’, ‘verb-adverb combinations’, ‘verb-particle
constructions", “two-part words/verbs’ and ‘three-part words/verbs’ (depending on the
number of words).
Phrasal verbs are usually used informally in everyday speech as opposed to the more
formal Latinate verbs, such as “to get together” rather than “to congregate”, “to put off”
rather than “to postpone”, or “to get out” rather than “to exit”. They should be avoided in
academic writing.
Note! Some linguists differentiate between phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs, while
others assume them to be part of one and the same construction, as both types are
phrasal in nature. So, unless you want to become a linguist, don't worry about it.
A.
Literal usage:
Many verbs in English can be combined with an adverb or a preposition, a phrasal
verb used in a literal sense with a preposition is easy to understand
For example:
"He walked across the square.
Verb and adverb constructions are also easy to understand when used literally.
For example:
"She opened the shutters and looked outside.”
"When he heard the crash, he looked up.”
An adverb in a literal phrasal verb modifies the verb it is attached to, and a
preposition links the subject to the verb.
B.
Idiomatic usage:
It is, however, the figurative or idiomatic application in everyday speech which makes
phrasal verbs so important:
For example:
"I hope you will get over your operation quickly.”
The literal meaning of “to get over”, in the sense of “to climb over something to get to
the other side”, is not relevant here. Here "get over" means "recover from" or "feel
better”.
18
C.
Transitive and intransitive phrasal verbs:
Phrasal verbs also differ in their transitivity or intransitivity in the same way as normal
verbs do. A transitive verb always has an object.
For example:
Many people walked across the bridge.”
"Across" in this sentence is the preposition to "the bridge".
An intransitive verb does not have an object.
For example:
“When I entered the room he looked up.”
"Up" here is an adverb, and does not have an object.
D.
Separable or inseparable phrasal verbs:
A further way of considering phrasal verbs is whether they are separable or
inseparable. In inseparable verbs, the object comes after the particle.
For example:
"She got on the bus."
"On weekdays, we look after our grandchildren.”
Separable verbs have several ways of separating verb, particle and object. Usually,
the object comes between verb and particle.
For example:
"She looked up the word in her dictionary."
"She looked it up in her dictionary.”
However, with some separable verbs, the object can come before or after the
particle.
For example:
"Switch the light off."
"Switch off the light.”
"Switch it off.”
Note! There is usually no way of telling whether they are separable, inseparable,
transitive or intransitive. In most cases you have to get a feel for them.
8.
Regular Verbs:
Regular verbs are conjugated in order for the rules to be easily learned.
They all have a base form. e.g. to look
A gerund (ing) form where ing is added to the end of the verb. e.g. looking
An -s form where s is added to the end of the verb. e.g. looks
A past tense form where ed is added to the end of the verb. e.g. looked
A past participle form where ed is added to the end of the verb. e.g. looked
19
9.
Stative Verbs:
Stative verbs are verbs that show a state and not an action.
You can group verbs that show a state in the following ways:
A.
Verbs that show thought - believe, doubt, know, understand, etc.
B.
Verbs that show possession - have, own, want, contain, etc.
C.
Verbs that show senses - hear, see, smell, etc.
D.
Verbs that show emotion - love, hate, want, need, etc.
There are regular and irregular stative verbs. But when they are used to show a state
they do not take the -ing form.
For example:
I like ice cream. (Never "I am liking...")
I know a lot of English words. (Never "I am knowing...")
However, some verbs can be used to show an action or a state.
For example:
I think English is easy. = It is my opinion.
I'm thinking of joining a new course. = I am considering it.
10.
Short Forms (Contracted Forms) in English:
Verb conjugation and contraction - in other words; "The short form”.
In spoken English we use the short form a lot. We say things like: I'm / you're / didn't etc.
instead of I am / you are / did not, etc.
We also use these short forms in informal written English. When we write in the short
form, we use an apostrophe (') for the missing letter(s).
Forms of the auxiliary verbs to be, to do and to have:
A.
To be - Simple Present Form
Positive Statement
Long form
Short form
I am
I’m
He is
He’s
She is
She's
It is
It's
You are
You're
We are
We're
They are
They're
Negative Statement
Long form
Short form
I am not
I’m not
He is not
He isn't or He's not
She is not
She isn't or She's not
It is not
It isn't or It's not
You are not
You aren't or You're not
We are not
We aren't or We're not
They are not
They're not
20
B.
To be - Simple Past Form
Positive Statement
Long form
Short form
I was
He was
She was
It was
You were
We were
They were
-
C.
To do - Simple Present Form
Positive Statement
Long form
Short form
I do
He does
She does
It does
You do
We do
They do
-
D.
Negative Statement
Long form
Short form
I / he / she /
I / he / she /
it / you / we /
it / you / we /
they did not
they didn't
To have - Simple Present Form
Positive Statement
Long form
Short form
I have
I’ve
He has
He’s
She has
She’s
It has
It’s
You have
You’ve
We have
We’ve
They have
They’ve
F.
Negative Statement
Long form
Short form
I do not
I don't
He does not
He doesn't
She does not
She doesn't
It does not
It doesn't
You do not
You don't
We do not
We don't
They do not
They don't
To do - Simple Past Form
Positive Statement
Long form
Short form
I / he / she /
it / you / we /
they did
E.
Negative Statement
Long form
Short form
I was not
I wasn't
He was not
He wasn't
She was not
She wasn't
It was not
It wasn't
You were not
You weren't
We were not
We weren't
They were not
They weren't
Negative Statement
Long form
Short form
I have not
I haven’t or I’ve not
He has not
He hasn’t or He’s not
She has not
She hasn’t or She’s not
It has not
It hasn’t or It’s not
You have not
You haven’t or You’ve not
We have not
We haven’t or We’ve not
They have not
They haven’t or They’ve not
To have - Simple Past Form
Positive Statement
Long form
Short form
I
I'd
he
he'd
she
she'd
it
it'd
you
you'd
we
we'd
they had
they'd
Negative Statement
Long form
Short form
I
I hadn't or I'd not
he
he hadn't or he'd not
she
she hadn't or she'd not
it
it hadn't or it'd not
you
you hadn't or you'd not
we
we hadn't or we'd not
they had not
they hadn't or they'd not
21
The long and short forms of the modal verbs can, could, shall, should, must, will and
would
a.
Can
Positive Statement
Long form
Short form
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they can
b.
Could
Positive Statement
Long
Short
form
form
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they could
c.
Negative Statement
Long
Short
form
form
I / he / she/ it / you /
I / he / she / it /
we / they could not
you / we / they couldn’t
Must
Positive Statement
Long
Short
form
form
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they must
d.
Negative Statement
Long
Short
form
form
I / he / she/ it / you /
I / he / she / it / you /
we / they must not
we / they mustn't
Shall
Positive Statement
Long
Short
form
form
I / he / she / it /
you / we / they shall
e.
Negative Statement
Long
Short
form
form
I / he / she/ it / you /
I / he / she / it / you /
we / they shall not
we / they shan't
Should
Positive Statement
Long
Short
form
form
I / he / she / it / you /
we / they should
f.
Negative Statement
Long form
Short form
I / he / she/ it / you /
I / he / she / it /
we / they cannot
you / we / they can't
Negative Statement
Long
Short
form
form
I / he / she/ it / you /
I / he / she / it / you /
we / they should not
we / they shouldn’t
Will
Positive Statement
Long
Short
form
form
I
I'll
he
He'll
she
She'll
it
It'll
you
You'll
we
We'll
they will
They'll
Long
form
I
he
she
it
you
we
they will not
Negative Statement
Short
form
I won't or I'll not
He won't or He'll not
She won't or She'll not
It won't or It'll not
You won't or You'll not
We won't or We'll not
They won't or They'll not
22
g.
Would
Positive Statement
Negative Statement
Long
Short
Long
Short
form
form
form
form
I
I'd
I
I wouldn't or I'd not
he
He'd
he
He wouldn't or He'd not
she
She'd
she
She wouldn't or She'd not
it
It'd*
it
It wouldn't or It'd not*
you
You'd
you
You wouldn't or You'd not
we
We'd
we
We wouldn't or We'd not
they would
They'd
they would not
They wouldn't or They'd not
Note! It'd* is not "good" English, but you will hear it occasionally.
The imperative:
Let Us:
Let us is a funny one. The only time I've ever heard the long form of "Let us..." used
is when the vicar used to say "Let us pray." It's much more likely you'll hear or see
the contracted form "let's". "Let's do this," no "Let's do that instead," and the sarcastic
"Oh yes, let's.”
Positive Statement
Long form – rarely used
Short form
Let us
Let's
11.
Negative Statement
Long form
Short form
Let us not
Let's not
Some Very Important Verbs:
A.
To be:
Be is the most common verb in the English language. It can be used as an auxiliary
and a main verb. It is used a lot in its other forms.
Base form = be
Present form = am/is/are
Past form = was/were
Present Participle / Gerund = being
Past Participle = been
Probably the best known verb in the world: "To be or not to be...”
I
he / she / it
you / we / they
Present
am
is
are
Forms of To Be
Past
Perfect Form
was
have / had been
was
has / had been
were
have / had been
Continuous Form
am / was being
is / was being
are / were being
Normally we use the verb to be to show the status or characteristics of something or
someone (as a stative verb). It says what I am, what you are or what something is.
23
Present Simple (stative)
He / She is
It is
a student.
a car.
We are all
teachers.
They are
students.
You
were a
student.
Past Simple (stative)
He / She
It was a
was a
nice day
student.
yesterday.
We were
all students
once.
They
were
students.
You
will be
a teacher.
Future Simple (stative)
He / She
It
will be
will be nice
a teacher
later.
We
will be
teachers.
They
will be
students.
I am a
teacher.
You are a
student.
I
was a
student.
I
will be a
student.
When used with the present participle of other verbs it describes actions that are or
were still continuing - auxiliary verb be [+ ing form of the main verb].
I am
being silly.
You are
being silly.
Present Continuous (active)
He / She is
It is
being silly.
being silly.
We are
being silly.
They are
being
silly.
I was
being silly.
You were
being silly.
Past Continuous (active)
He / She was
It was
being silly
being silly.
We were
being silly.
They were
being
silly.
Am / Is / Are
The verb to be is used to create simple yes/no questions by simply inverting the
order of subject and the “To be” verb.
For example:
I am a teacher. (Statement)
Am I a teacher? (Question)
24
Question
Singular
Am I..?
Is he /
she / it ?
Are you ...?
Am I being?
Is he / she /
it being...?
Are you
being ...?
Was I ...?
Was he /
she / it ...?
Were you ..?
Was I being?
Was he / she
/ it being...?
Were you
being ...?
Will I be ...?
Will he / she /
it be ...?
Will you
be .?
Plural
Are we /
you / they?
Are we /
you / they
being ..?
Were we /
you / they ...?
Were we/
you / they
being ?
Will we / you
/ they be ...?
Positive Statement
Negative Statement
(possible short forms)
I am ... (I'm ...)
He / She / It is ...
(He's/She's/It's ...)
You are ...(You're...)
I am being…
He / She / It is being ...
(He's/She's/It's being ..)
You are being ...
(You're being ...)
I was ...
He / She /
It was ...
You were ...
I was being ...
He / She /
It was being ...
You were
being ...
I will be ... (I'll be ...)
He / She / It will be..
(He'll / She'll / It'll be ...)
You will be ...
(You'll be .)
I am not ... (I'm not ...)
He / She / It is not. (He / She / It isn't.)
(He's / She's / It's not ...)
You are not (You're not ... / You aren't...)
I am not being ... (I'm not being...)
He / She / It is not being ... (He / She / It
isn't being...// He/she/it's not being...)
You are not being ...
(You're not being..// You aren't being...)
I was not. ..
He / She / It was not ...
(He / She / It wasn't)
You were not ... (You weren't ...)
I was not being (I wasn't being...)
He / She / It was not being ...
(He / She / It wasn't being... )
You were not being ...
(You weren't being ...)
I will not be ... (I'll not be ...)
He / She / It will not be (He / She / It won't
be // He'll not be / She'll not be / It'll not be.)
You will not be…
(You won't be.// You'll not be..)
We / You / They are
(We're/You're / They're)
We / You / They are
being . (We're /
You're / They're)
We / You /
They were ...
We /
You /
They were being ...
We / You / They will be
(We'll /You'll They'll be )
We / You /They are not (We're / You're /
They're not // We / You / They aren't)
We / You /They are not being
(We're / You're / They're not being //
We / You / They aren't being)
We / You / They were not ...
(We / You / They weren't ...)
We / You / They were not being ...
(We / You / They weren't being ...)
We / You /They will not be (We/You/ They
won't be // We'll / You'll They'll not be ...)
For example:
Am/Are
Question - ?
Positive Answer -Yes
Negative Answer - No
Question - ?
Positive Answer -Yes
Negative Answer - No
Is
"Am I disturbing you?"
"Yes you are."
"No you're not."
Was / Were
"Was I disturbing you?"
"Yes you were."
"No you weren't."
"Is this your coat"
"Yes it is"
"No it isn't"
Was
"Was that your old house?"
"Yes it was."
"No it wasn't.”
Note! The verb to be is also used when forming the passive voice.
25
B.
The Verb To Do:
The verb to do is another common verb in English. It can be used as an auxiliary and
a main verb. It is often used in questions.
I / you / we / they
he / she / it
Present
do
does
Forms of To Do
Past
Perfect Form
did
have / had done
did
has / had done
Continuous Form
are / were doing
is / was doing
As an auxiliary verb do is used with a main verb when forming interrogative or
negative sentences, or for adding emphasis. It is also called the dummy operator or
dummy auxiliary.
Question
Singular
Do I?
Do you?
Does he/she/it?
Plural
Do we?
Do you?
Do they?
Positive Statement
(spoken)
Negative Statement
(spoken)
I do
You do
He/she/it does
I do not (I don't)
You do not (You don't)
He/she/it does not (He/she/it doesn't)
We do
You do
They do
We do not (We don't)
You do not (You don't)
They do not (They don't)
For example:
Do
Question - ?
Positive Answer - Yes
Negative Answer - No
Does
"Do you always take the
bus to work?"
"Yes I do."
"No I don't."
"Does she ever do her
homework on time?"
"Yes she does."
"No she doesn't.”
When using the continuous tense do becomes doing and it doesn't change.
Doing
Question - ?
Positive Answer - Yes
Negative Answer - No
"Are you doing your homework?"
"Yes I am."
"No I'm not."
When using the simple past tense do becomes did and it doesn't change.
Did
Question - ?
Positive Answer - Yes
Negative Answer - No
"Did you always take the bus to work?"
"Yes I did."
"No I didn't."
More functions for the verb “to do”:
The verb “to do” works as a main verb.
For example:
A.
My husband does the dishes.
B.
Gosh! Did he do them yesterday?
A.
Yes he did.
26
Do is used as an auxiliary verb (dummy auxiliary) in the question form.
For example:
I know the way. Do you know the way?
Do is used for emphasis in positive statements.
For example:
I do like this cake!
Note! As an auxiliary verb 'do' is always followed by the base form of the main verb
(infinitive).
C.
The Verb To Have:
Forms of To Have
Present
Past
have
had
has
had
I / you / we / they
he / she / it
Continuous
having
having
Have is one of the most common verbs in the English language. It functions in
various ways.
To have as a main verb:
As a main verb “to have” implies the meaning of possession.
For example:
“I have a job.” “I have a car.“ "I don't have any time."
In this form it does not take the continuous form (for that you have to use the
auxiliary verb be).
For example:
“I am having a shower.” “Are you having a good time?"
The forms of the verb “to have” are have and has for the present and had for the
past.
Question
Singular
Have I?
Has he/she/it?
Have you?
Had I / he /
she / it / you?
Plural
Have we /
you / they?
Have you?
Have they?
Had I / he /
she / it / you?
Positive Statement
(spoken)
Negative Statement
(spoken)
I have (I've)
He/she/it has (He/she/it 's)
You have (You've)
I / He / She / It / You had
(I'd / He'd / She'd / You'd)
I have not (I haven't/I've not)
He/she/it has not (He/she/it hasn't)
You have not (You haven't/You've not)
I / He / She / It / You had not
(I / He / She / It / You hadn't)
We / You / They have
(We've)
You have
(You've)
They have
(They've)
I / He / She / It / You had
(I'd / He'd / She'd / You'd)
We / You / They have not (We / You /
They haven't // We've / You've not)
You have not
(You haven't/You've not)
They have not
(They haven't/They've not)
I / He / She / It / You had not
(I / He / She / It / You hadn't)
27
As mentioned, "have" is often used to indicate possession (I have) or you might see
(I have got).
For example:
Have
Have got
"Do you have a car?" or
"Have you a car?"
"Yes I have a car."
"No I don't have a car."
Question - ?
Positive Answer -Yes
Negative Answer - No
"Have you got a car?"
"Yes I've got a car."
"No I haven't got a car.”
To have as an auxiliary verb:
The verb “to have” is used as an auxiliary verb to help other verbs create the perfect
tense - auxiliary verb have [+ past participle].
For example:
“I have studied English for five years.”
“I have never been to America.” or "I have eaten.”
Present Perfect
I have
been a
teacher.
You have
been a
student.
He / She has
been a
student.
I had
been a
teacher
for several
years.
You had
been a
student for
several
years.
He / She had
been a
student for
several
years.
I will have
been a
teacher
for several
years.
You will
have been
a student
for several
years.
He / She will
have been a
student for
several
years.
It has
been
nice.
We have
been
students.
They have
been
students.
We had
been
students for
several
years.
They had
been
students for
several
years.
We will
have been
students for
several
years.
They will
have been
students for
several
years.
Past Perfect
It had
been
nice for
several
hours.
Future Perfect
Question
Singular
Have you
been..?
Plural
Have we /
you / they
been..?
Positive
Statement
It will
have been
nice for
several
years.
Negative Statement
(possible short forms)
You have been
(You've been..)
You have not been…
(You haven't been ... // You've not been..
We / You / They have
been.. (We've / You've
They've been ..)
We / You / They have not been …
(We / You / They haven't been …
// We've / You've They've not been …)
For example:
Question - ?
Positive Answer - Yes
Negative Answer - No
Question - ?
Positive Answer - Yes
Negative Answer - No
"Have you washed your face today?”
"Yes, I have."
"No, I haven't."
"Have you ever had a heart attack?"
"Yes, I'm afraid I have."
"No, thank goodness, I haven't.”
28
The use of have to:
In addition to the two forms, there is another use for have as a modal verb; have
to or have got to. This, of course, must be followed by another verb "We have
to do something.”
Have to
Question - ?
Positive Answer -Yes
Negative Answer - No
Have got to
"Do you have to leave early?"
"Yes I have to." or "Yes I do"
"No I don't have to."
"Have you got to
leave early?"
"Yes I've got to."
"No I haven't got to."
To have something done:
If something is done for you, in other words you haven't actually done it yourself, we
use the structure "to have something done”.
For example:
"I have my hair cut once every six weeks." (I don't cut my own hair, my
hairdresser cuts it for me.)
"My husband has the car serviced once a year." (He wouldn't have a clue how
to service a modern car so, he takes it to the garage and they service it for us.)
D.
Do vs. Make:
When 'do' or 'make' are used as main verbs it can be confusing to ESL learners.
The verb 'make' goes with some words and the verb 'do' with other words.
1.
Do
We use the verb 'do' when someone performs an action, activity or task.
For example:
do a crossword
do the ironing
do the laundry
do the washing
'Do' is often used when referring to work of any kind.
For example:
do your work
do homework
do your job
Note! These activities do not usually produce a physical object.
'Do' for General Ideas:
Use the verb 'do' when speaking about things in general. In other words, to
describe an action without saying exactly what the action is. This form is often
used with the words 'something, nothing, anything, everything, etc.’
For example:
I'm not doing anything today.
He does everything for his mother.
She's doing nothing.
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Important Expressions with 'Do':
There are a number of standard expressions that take the verb 'do'. The best
solution is to try to learn them.
For example:
do badly
do a favor
do well
do your nails
2.
do business
do good
do your best
do your worst
do the dishes
do harm
do your hair
do time - (to go to prison)
Make
We use the verb 'make' for constructing, building or creating.
For example:
make a dress
make food
make a cup of tea / coffee
'Make' is often used when referring to preparing food of any kind.
For example:
make a meal - breakfast / lunch / dinner
Note! These activities usually create something that you can touch.
Important Expressions with 'Make’:
There are a number of standard expressions that take the verb 'make'. The
best solution is to try to learn them.
For example:
make amends
make a choice
make a difference
make an excuse
make friends
make love
make money
make a phone call
make a profit
make a speech
E.
make arrangements
make a comment
make an effort
make a fortune
make a fuss
make a mess
make a move
make a plan
make a remark
make a suggestion
make believe - (to pretend)
make a decision
make an enquiry
make a fool of yourself
make a journey
make a mistake
make a noise
make a point
make a sound
make time
“Used to” or 'use to' vs. would:
If we say something used to happen we are talking about repeated events
and actions in the past, usually things that happened a long time ago and are now
finished.
To express this we can use either used to or would.
For example:
When I was young I used to play with my dolls. = When I was young I would
play with my dolls.
Of course I no longer play with dolls!
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Another example:
We used to go out a lot in the summer.
It implies that we no longer go out much.
If you want to talk about repeated states or habits in the past, you must use used
to, you cannot use would:
For example:
My dog used to bark at cats.
I used to smoke.
I used to be an administrative assistant.
I used to live in Paris.
You should use 'use to' without a d in sentences when it follows “did” or
“didn't” (don't worry too much about this because lots of people get it wrong).
The question form is ‘Did you use to…?'. When asking a closed question you put
did/didn't in front of the subject followed by use to, you cannot use would
For example:
Did you use to go out with my sister?
Did they use to own the company?
Didn't we use to go to the same school?
Also when asking questions about states in the past you cannot use would.
For example:
What sort of things did you use to like when you were young?
In the negative you cannot use would without a change in meaning.
For example:
I didn't use to play with my dolls.
*
If I said I wouldn't play with my dolls. It would mean I refused to play with my
dolls.
Another example:
We didn't use to go out much in the winter months.
*
If I said we wouldn't go out much. It would mean we refused to go out much.
Note! The general rule is when there is did or didn't in the sentence, we say use
to (without d) when there is no did or didn't in the sentence, we say used
to (with d).
There is also a difference between "used to do something” and “to be used to
something”.
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ADVERBS:
Adverbs can tell you where, when, how, why and to what extent something happens.
They are often formed from adjectives or nouns be adding the suffix –ly.
For example:
Quick becomes quickly, sudden becomes suddenly, intelligent becomes intelligently
To form an adverb from adjectives ending in -y change the y to i before adding the –ly.
For example:
Angry becomes angrily, busy becomes busily
To form an adverb from adjectives ending in -e drop the -e before adding the –ly.
For example:
Feeble becomes feebly, true becomes truly.
Some adjectives ending in -ly need no changes.
For example:
Heavenly.
However there are exceptions.
For example:
sly becomes slyly, shy becomes shyly
Some adverbs do not end in –ly.
For example:
fast, hard, straight
Adjective
Example
Adverb
Example
Pretty
She was a
pretty girl.
Prettily
The bird
sang prettily.
Serious
He was a
serious boy.
Seriously
The policeman spoke
seriously.
Fast
It was a
fast car.
Fast
Schumacher
drives fast.
Quiet
They were quiet
children.
Quietly
The woman
spoke quietly.
Adverbs can modify adjectives:
An adjective can be modified by an adverb, which precedes the adjective.
For example:
That's really nice.
Adverbs can modify adverbs:
Some adverbs can modify others. As with adjectives, the adverb precedes the one it is modifying
For example:
She did it really well.
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Adverbs can modify nouns:
Adverbs can modify nouns to indicate time or place.
For example:
The concert tomorrow.
The room upstairs.
Adverbs can modify noun phrases:
Some adverbs of degree such as quite, rather, so, such ... can modify noun phrases.
For example:
We had quite a good time.
They're such good friends.
Adverbs can modify determiners, numerals and pronouns:
Adverbs such as almost, nearly, hardly, about, etc., can be used:
For example:
Nearly everyone, who was invited, came to the party.
Adverbs can modify sentences:
Some adverbs modify a whole sentence, not just a part of one
For example:
Luckily the car stopped in time. In this sentence luckily modifies the whole sentence, it
shows that it was good luck that the car stopped in time.
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ADVERBIALS:
Adverbials modify or tell us something about the sentence or the verb. It may be a single adverb, a
phrase, or a prepositional phrase, or a clause element.
When an adverbial modifies a verb, it changes the meaning of that verb.
For example:
The students looked at me.
The students looked at me anxiously. (The verb looked suddenly has a very different
meaning).
When an adverbial modifies a sentence, the meaning of the sentence changes.
For example:
I passed all of my exams.
Surprisingly, I passed all of my exams.
Word groups that are also considered to be adverbials can also modify verbs: a prepositional
phrase, a noun phrase, a finite clause or a non-finite clause.
Multi-word adverbials are sometimes called an adverbial phrases.
For example:
I ran as quickly as I could, but I missed the bus.
If a whole clause acts as an adverbial, it's called an adverbial clause.
For example:
I'll go to bed when the film ends.
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ADJECTIVES:
Adjectives describe or give information about nouns or pronouns.
For example:
The white dog barked. (The adjective white describes the noun "dog".)
The good news is that the form of an adjective does not change. It does not matter if the noun
being modified is male or female, singular or plural, subject or object.
Some adjectives give us factual information about the noun - age, size, color, etc. (fact adjectives can't be argued with). Some adjectives show what somebody thinks about something or
somebody - nice, horrid, beautiful, etc. (opinion adjectives - not everyone may agree).
If you are asked questions with which, whose, what kind, or how many, you need an adjective to
be able to answer.
There are different types of adjectives in the English language:
1.
Numeric: three, one hundred, thirteen, etc.
2.
Quantitative: all, more, some, half, more than enough, etc.
3.
Qualitative: smell, color, size, etc.
4.
Possessive: his, my, her, their, your, etc.
5.
Interrogative: what, which, whose, etc.
6.
Demonstrative: that, this, those, these, etc.
Note! The articles a, an, and the; and the possessives my, your, our, and their, are also
adjectives.
A.
Opinion:
Adjectives can be used to give your opinion about something.
pretty, good, right, wrong, funny, light, happy, sad, full, soft, hard, etc.
For example:
He was a good boy.
B.
Size:
Adjectives can be used to describe size.
big, small, little, long, tall, short, same as, etc.
For example:
"The big boy." or "The short girl.”
C.
Age:
Adjectives can be used to describe age.
Old, young, middle-aged, etc.
For example:
"He was an old man.” or "She was a young woman.”
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D.
Shape:
Adjectives can be used to describe shape.
round, circular, triangular, rectangular, square, oval, etc.
For example:
"It was a rectangular box." or "They were rectangular boxes.”
E.
Color:
Adjectives can be used to describe color.
red, blue, green, brown, yellow, black, white, etc.
For example:
"The red bag." or "The red bags.”
F.
Origin:
Adjectives can be used to describe origin.
For example:
“It was a Philippine flag.” or They were Philippine flags.”
G.
Material:
Adjectives can be used to identify the material something is made of.
Note! In English we often use a noun as an adjective.
For example:
“A wooden cupboard.” or “Wooden cupboards.”
H.
Distance:
Adjectives can be used to describe distance.
long, short, far, around, start, high, low, etc.
For example:
“She went for a long walk.” or “She went for long walks.”
I.
Temperature:
Adjectives can be used to describe temperature.
Cold, warm, hot, cool, etc.
For example:
“The day was hot.” or “The days were hot.”
J.
Time:
Adjectives can be used to describe time.
late, early, bed, nap, dinner, lunch, day, morning, night, etc.
For example:
“She had an early start.”
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K.
Purpose:
Adjectives can be used to describe purpose. (These adjectives often end with “-ing”.)
For example:
“She gave them a sleeping bag.” or “She gave them sleeping bags.”
Note! In each case the adjective stays the same, whether it is describing a masculine,
feminine, singular, or plural noun.
When using more than one adjective to modify a noun, the adjectives may be separated by
a conjunction (and) or by commas (,).
For example:
“Her hair was long and blonde.” or “She had long, blonde hair.”
L.
Attributive:
Adjectives that go immediately before the noun are called attributive adjectives.
For example:
“She was a pretty girl.” or “He was a serious boy.”
M.
Predicative:
Adjectives can also be used after some verbs. They do not describe the verb; adverbs do
that. Adjectives after a verb describe the subject of the verb (usually a noun or pronoun).
They are called predicative adjectives.
For example:
“David looks tired.” The subject (in this case David) is being described as tired, not the
verb to look.
N.
Used to:
Used to can be used as an adjective and we use it to talk about things that have become
familiar, and are no longer strange or new.
Used to usually comes after verbs such as be, get, or become
For example:
After a while you get used to the noise.
She will become used to the smell.
I was used to the web site.
You can also say that someone is used to doing something.
For example:
I'll never get used to getting up at six o'clock in the morning.
It took me a while until I was used to driving on the right-hand side of the road.
37
Comparative form of Adjectives:
When we compare two things or people we look at what makes them different from each
other.
1.
Tall / Short
For example:
The man on the left is taller than the man on the right.
The man on the right is shorter than the man on the left.
2.
Fast / Slow
For example:
A car is faster than a bicycle.
A bicycle is slower than a car.
Comparative adjectives are used to show what quality one thing has more or less than the
other. They normally come before any other adjectives.
1.
Big / Small
For example:
The red bag is bigger than the blue bag.
The blue bag is smaller than the red bag.
Forming the comparative
Form
Words of one syllable ending in 'e'.
Words of one syllable,
with one vowel and
one consonant at the end.
Words of one syllable, with more
than one vowel or more than one
consonant at the end.
Words of two syllables,
ending in 'y'.
Words of two syllables or more,
not ending in 'y'.
Rule
Add -r to the end of the word.
Double the consonant
and add -er to the
end of the word
For example
wide - wider
Add - er to the
end of the word.
Change 'y' to 'i', and add
-er to the end of the word.
Place 'more'
before the adjective.
high - higher
big - bigger
happy happier
beautiful more beautiful
The following adjectives are exceptions to this rule:
1.
'good' becomes 'better'
2.
'bad' becomes 'worse'
3.
'far' becomes 'farther' or 'further'
Note! When comparing two things like this we put than between the adjective and the thing
being compared.
For example:
"Mount Everest is higher than Mount Fiji."
"Arguably, Rome is more beautiful than Paris.
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Adjective Order:
Adjectives can be used to describe lots of things, from physical size, age, shape, color,
material, to more abstract things like opinion, origin and purpose. We can use adjectives
together to give a detailed description of something. Adjectives that express opinions usually
come before all others, but it can sometimes depend on what exactly you want to emphasize.
For example:
"That nice, big, blue bag." (You like the bag.)
"That big, nice, blue bag." (You like the color.)
When we group adjectives together there is a general rule for the position of each type
adjective, these are:
Position
1st
Opinion
Nice
Ugly
2nd
Size
Small
Big
3rd
Age
Old
New
4th
Shape
Square
Circular
5th
Color
Black
Blue
6th
Material
Plastic
Cotton
7th
Origin
British
French
8th
Purpose
Racing
Running
This is just a guide as you wouldn't normally see so many adjectives in one description.
For example:
"She had a big, ugly, old, baggy, blue, cotton, British, knitting bag." Is grammatically
correct but a bit too long-winded.
You might swap opinion and fact adjectives depending on what you wish to emphasize:
For example:
"She had a long, ugly nose." emphasizing the length of her nose.
"He was a silly, little man." emphasizing that the man was silly.
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Appearance
Condition
Feelings
(negative)
Feelings
(neutral)
Feelings
(positive)
Shape
Size
Sound
Speed
Taste
Time
Touch
adorable, alert, average, beautiful, blonde, bloody, blushing, bright, clean,
clear, cloudy, colorful, concerned, crowded, curious, cute, dark, dirty, drab,
distinct, dull, elegant, fancy, filthy, glamorous, gleaming, graceful, grotesque,
homely, light, misty, motionless, muddy, plain, poised, quaint, scary, shiny,
smoggy, sparkling, spotless, stormy, strange, ugly, unsightly, unusual
alive, brainy, broken, busy, careful, cautious, clever, crazy, damaged, dead,
difficult, easy, fake, false, famous, forward, fragile, guilty, helpful, helpless,
important, impossible, infamous, innocent, inquisitive, mad, modern, open,
outgoing, outstanding, poor, powerful, puzzled, real, rich, right, robust, sane,
scary, shy, sleepy, stupid, super, tame, thick, tired, wild, wrong
afraid, angry, annoyed, anxious, arrogant, ashamed, awful, bad, bewildered,
bored, concerned, condemned, confused, creepy, cruel, dangerous,
defeated, defiant, depressed, disgusted, disturbed, doubtful, eerie,
embarrassed, envious, evil, fierce, foolish, frantic, frightened, grieving, guilty,
helpless, hungry, hurt, ill, jealous, lonely, mad, naughty, nervous, obnoxious,
outrageous, panicky, repulsive, safe, scared, shy, sleepy, sore, strange,
tense, terrible, tired, troubled, unusual, upset, uptight, weary, wicked, worried
alright, calm, different, fair, fine, OK, pleasant, puzzled
agreeable, alert, amused, brave, bright, charming, cheerful, comfortable,
cooperative, courageous, delightful, determined, eager, elated, enchanting,
encouraging, energetic, enthusiastic, excited, exuberant, faithful, fantastic,
friendly, frowning, funny, gentle, glorious, good, happy, healthy, helpful,
hilarious, innocent, jolly, kind, lively, lovely, lucky, obedient, perfect, proud,
relaxed, relieved, silly, smiling, splendid, successful, thoughtful, victorious,
vivacious, well, witty, wonderful
broad, crooked, curved, deep, even, flat, hilly, jagged, round, shallow,
square, steep, straight, thick, thin, triangular, uneven
average, big, fat, gigantic, huge, large, little, long, massive, medium,
miniature, narrow, petite, short, skinny, small, tall, tiny, wide
cooing, deafening, faint, harsh, high-pitched, hissing, hushed, husky, loud,
melodic, moaning, mute, noisy, purring, quiet, raspy, screeching, shrill, silent,
soft, squeaky, squealing, thundering, voiceless, whispering
fast, quick, rapid, slow, swift
bitter, bland, delicious, different, fresh, greasy, hot, juicy, repulsive, revolting,
ripe, rotten, salty, sour, spicy, stale, strong, sweet, tasteless, tasty, terrible,
wonderful
ancient, brief, early, late, long, modern, new, old,
old-fashioned, quick, short, young
blunt, boiling, breakable, breezy, broken, bumpy, chilly, clean, cold, cool,
crooked, cuddly, curly, damaged, damp, different, dirty, dry, dusty, filthy,
flaky, fluffy, fuzzy, greasy, grubby, hard, icy, loose, plastic, prickly, ripe,
rough, rubbery, scratchy, shaky, shaggy, sharp, silky, slimy, slippery,
smooth, soft, solid, steady, sticky, tight, uneven, unusual, unripe, warm,
weak, wet, wooden, wooly
40
Possessive Adjectives:
Possessive adjectives are used to show ownership or possession.
Subject pronoun
I
you
he
she
it
we
they
Possessive adjective
my
your
his
her
its
our
their
For example:
I own a laptop. = It is my laptop.
You own this computer (I presume). = It is your computer.
My husband owns a car. = It is his car.
My sister owns a house. = It is her house.
My dog owns a collar. = It is its collar.
We use this website. = It is our website.
L.A. Lakers own a basketball stadium. = It is their basketball stadium.
Superlative Adjectives:
The superlative is used to say what thing or person has the most of a particular quality within
a group or of its kind. Superlative adjectives normally come before any other adjectives.
Forming the superlative
Form
Words of one syllable ending in 'e'.
Words of one syllable, with one vowel
and one consonant at the end.
Words of one syllable, with more than
one vowel or more than one consonant
at the end.
Words of two syllables, ending in 'y'.
Words of two syllables or more, not
ending in 'y'.
Rule
Add -st to the end of the word.
Double the consonant and add
-est to the end of the word.
For example
wide - widest
Add - est to the end of
the word.
Change 'y' to 'i', and add -est
to the end of the word.
Place 'the most' before the
adjective.
high - highest
big - biggest
happy - happiest
beautiful - the
most beautiful
The following adjectives are exceptions:
1.
'good' becomes 'the best'
2.
'bad' becomes 'the worst'
3.
'far' becomes 'the furthest'
For example:
"Robert is the best student in the class."
"Alan is the worst student in the class."
"In our solar system the planet Mercury is the nearest planet to the Sun.”
41
Note! superlatives are usually preceded by 'the'.
For example:
"The Nile river, located in North/East Africa, is the longest river in the world."
According to the List of World records Robert Pershing Wadlow, from Illinois,
is the tallest person ever to live, reaching a height of 8 ft 11.1 in (2.720 m).
"Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world."
"I think that Angela is the prettiest girl in our class.”
"Arguably, Rome is the most beautiful city in the world.”
Personality Adjectives Table
A list of English adjectives used to describe people's personalities:
Positive
adaptable, adorable, agreeable, alert, alluring, ambitious, amusing
boundless, brave, bright
calm, capable, charming, cheerful, confident, cooperative, courageous, credible, dashing,
dazzling, debonair, decisive, decorous, delightful, determined, diligent, discreet, dynamic,
eager, efficient, enchanting, encouraging, energetic, enthusiastic, excellent, exuberant
fabulous, fair, faithful, fantastic, fearless, frank, friendly, funny
generous, gentle, good
happy, harmonious, helpful, hilarious, honorable
impartial, industrious, instinctive
jolly, joyous
kind, kind-hearted, knowledgeable
likeable, lively, lovely, loving, lucky
mature, modern
nice
obedient
peaceful, perfect, plausible, pleasant, plucky, productive, protective, proud, punctual
quiet
receptive, reflective, relieved, resolute, responsible, righteous, romantic
sedate, self-assured, sensitive, shrewd, silly, sincere, splendid, steadfast, stimulating
talented, thoughtful, thrifty, tough, trustworthy
unbiased, unusual, upbeat
vigorous, vivacious
warm, willing, wise, witty, wonderful
zany, zealous
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Negative
abrasive, abrupt, abusive, aloof, ambiguous, angry, annoyed, anxious, arrogant, awful
bad, belligerent, boorish, boring
callous, careless, clumsy, combative, confused, cowardly, crazy, creepy, cruel, cynical
dangerous, deceitful, defective, defiant, depressed, deranged, disillusioned, disturbed
embarrassing, envious, erratic, evasive, evil
fanatical, fierce, finicky, flashy, flippant, foolish, forgetful, frantic, fretful, frightened, furtive
greedy, grieving, grouchy, gruesome, grumpy, guarded, gullible
helpless, hesitant, horrible, hurtful
ignorant, irresolute
jealous, jittery
lacking, lazy, lonely
malicious, materialistic, mean, mysterious
naïve, nasty, naughty, nervous, noisy
obnoxious, outrageous, over- zealous
panicky, pathetic
quarrelsome
repulsive, ruthless
sad, secretive, selfish, silly, slow, sneaky, snobbish, spendthrift, squeamish, stingy, sulky
tacky, tense, terrible, thick-skinned, thoughtless, threatening, tight, timid, troubled, truculent
uptight
vague, vengeful, venomous, volatile, voracious, vulgar
wary, wasteful, weak, wicked, worthless, wretched
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Common Adjectives Practice Test
Adjective
alive
attractive
bad
big
boring
broad
calm (weather)
clever
clumsy
cool
dangerous
dead
difficult
dry
early
fake
fast
fierce
frantic
gentle
graceful
happy
heavy
hot
innocent
late
light
loose
low
modern
new
normal
old (things)
plain
quiet
right (directions)
short (things)
sour
stormy
tame
thick
Opposite
dead
repulsive
good
small
interesting
narrow
stormy
stupid
graceful
warm
safe
alive
easy
wet
late
real
slow
gentle
calm
fierce
clumsy
sad
light
cold
guilty
early
heavy
tight
high
ancient
old
strange
new
fancy
noisy
left
long
sweet
calm
wild
thin
Adjective
ancient
backward
beautiful
blunt
bright
calm (person)
clean
closed
cold
cruel
dark
deep
dirty
dull
easy
fancy
fat (people)
forward
fresh
good
guilty
hard
high
ill
kind
left
long
loud
mad
narrow
noisy
old (people)
outgoing
poor
right (answer)
rough
short (people)
spotless
strong
terrible
young
Opposite
modern
forward
ugly
sharp
dark
frantic
dirty
open
hot
kind
bright
shallow
clean
shiny
difficult
plain
thin
backward
stale
bad
innocent
soft
low
well
cruel
right
short
soft
sane
wide
quiet
young
shy
rich
wrong
smooth
tall
stained
weak
wonderful
old
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ARTICLES:
First the good news: There are only three articles in English: a, an, and the. There are
two types of articles indefinite 'a' and 'an' or definite 'the'. You also need to know when not to
use an article
The bad news is that their proper use is complex, especially when you get into the advanced use
of English. Quite often you have to work it out by what sounds right, which can be frustrating for a
learner.
Indefinite articles - a and an (determiners):
A and an are the indefinite articles. They refer to something not specifically known to the person
you are communicating with.
A and an are used before nouns that introduce something or someone you have not mentioned
before:
For example:
"I saw an elephant this morning.”
"I ate a banana for lunch.”
A and an are also used when talking about your profession
For example:
"I am an English teacher.”
"I am a builder.”
You use a when the noun you are referring to begins with a consonant (b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n,
p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y or z).
For example:
"a city", "a factory", and "a hotel”.
You use an when the noun you are referring to begins with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u
Pronunciation changes this rule. It's the sound that matters, not the spelling.
If the next word begins with a consonant sound when we say it, for example, "university" then we
use a. If the next word begins with a vowel sound when we say it, for example "hour" then we
use an.
We say "university" with a "y" sound at the beginning as though it were spelt "youniversity".
So, "a university" IS correct.
We say "hour" with a silent h as though it were spelt "our".
So, "an hour" IS correct. (Lots of people get this wrong - including native speakers.)
Definite Article - the (determiners):
There are two ways to pronounce "the". One "thee" and the other "thuh"
A.
Strong pronunciation:
Sounds like "thee", rhymes with pea, fee, me
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We use the strong pronunciation with words that start with a vowel or sound as if they do.
For example:
"the apple", "the end", "the hour", 'the ice”
We also use the strong 'the' when we want to stress the word, regardless of whether it
begins with a vowel or a consonant
For example:
"I spoke to Kevin Costner the other day.”
"Not the Kevin Costner! The one who starred in Robin Hood?”
“No, the one who works at Starbucks.”
B.
Weak pronunciation:
Sounds like "thuh", rhymes with the "mo" and "ther" in "mother"
We use the weak pronunciation with words that start with a consonant or words that begin
with a vowel, but are pronounced as if they begin with a consonant. One example is the
word 'university'. It starts with a /j/ sound, which is a consonant. So we say, 'the university'.
Another example is the word 'one' - 'the one that most learners will know”
For example:
'the sound”, “the word”, “the number”, “the university”, “the one”
When to use the:
1.
You use the when you know that the listener knows or can work out what particular
person/thing you are talking about
For example:
"The apple you ate was rotten.”
"Did you lock the car?”
2.
You should also use the when you have already mentioned the thing you are talking about.
For example:
"She's got two children; a girl and a boy. The girl's eight and the boy's fourteen.”
3.
We use the to talk about geographical points on the globe.
For example:
the North Pole, the equator
4.
We use the to talk about rivers, oceans and seas
For example:
the Nile, the Pacific, the English channel
5.
We also use the before certain nouns when we know there is only one of a particular thing
For example:
the rain, the sun, the wind, the world, the earth, the White House, etc.
46
However if you want to describe a particular instance of these you should use a / an
For example:
"I could hear the wind." / "There's a cold wind blowing.”
"What are your plans for the future?" / "She has a promising future ahead of her.”
6.
The is also used to say that a particular person or thing being mentioned is the best, most
famous, etc. In this use, 'the' is usually given strong pronunciation:
For example:
"Harry's Bar is the place to go.”
"You don't mean you met the Kevin Costner, do you?”
Note! The doesn't mean all:
For example:
"The books are expensive." = (Not all books are expensive, just the ones I'm talking
about.)
"Books are expensive." = (All books are expensive.)
No article:
We usually use no article to talk about things in general:
For example:
Inflation is rising.
People are worried about rising crime. (Note! People generally, so no article)
You do not use an article when talking about sports.
For example:
My son plays football.
Tennis is expensive.
You do not use an article before uncountable nouns when talking about them generally.
For example:
Information is important to any organization.
Coffee is bad for you.
You do not use an article before the names of countries except where they indicate multiple areas
or contain the words (state(s), kingdom, republic, union). Kingdom, state, republic and union are
nouns, so they need an article.
For example:
No article - Italy, Mexico, Bolivia, England
Use the - the UK (United Kingdom), the USA (United States of America), the Irish Republic
Multiple areas! the Netherlands, the Philippines, the British Isles
47
PREPOSITIONS:
Prepositions are a class of words that indicate relationships between nouns, pronouns and other
words in a sentence. Most often they come before a noun.
The good news is that they never change their form, regardless of the case, gender etc. of the
word they are referring to.
Prepositions are classified as simple or compound.
Simple prepositions are single word prepositions - across, after, at, before, between, by, during,
from, in, into, of, on, to, under, with and without are all single word prepositions
For example:
The book is on the table.
Compound prepositions are more than one word - in between and because of - are prepositions
made up of two words - in front of, on behalf of - are prepositions made up of three words.
For example:
The book is in between War and Peace and The Lord of the Rings.
The book is in front of the clock.
A.
Preposition of movement:
Prepositions can be used to show movement.
For example:
to, through, across
1. We use to to show movement with the aim of a specific destination.
For example:
I moved to Germany in 1998.
He's gone to the shops.
2. We use through to show movement from one side of an enclosed space to the other.
For example:
The train went through the tunnel
3. We use across to show movement from one side of a surface or line to another.
For example:
She swam across the river.
48
More prepositions of movement:
She ran
to
through
across
along
down
over
off
round
into
the door.
the tunnel. (from one side of an enclosed space to the other)
the road. (from one side of an open space to the other)
the road. (the length of the road)
the road. (the length of the road)
the bridge. (from one side of an open space to the other)
the stage.
the track.
the room.
At and in can also be used as prepositions of movement, but it's used to show the purpose
of the movement.
For example:
Throw the paper in the bin.
Let's have dinner at my place.
When used after some verbs, the preposition at also shows the target of an action:
For example:
The pitcher was sent off for throwing the ball at the umpire, instead of to the batsman.
B.
Prepositions of place:
Prepositions can be used to show where something is located.
The prepositions at, on, and in
We use at to show a specific place or position.
For example:
Someone is at the door.
They are waiting at the bus stop.
I used to live at 51 Elm Street.
We use on to show position on a horizontal or vertical surface.
For example:
The cat sat on the mat.
The satellite dish is on the roof.
We also use on to show position on streets, roads, etc.
For example:
I used to live on Elm Street.
49
We use in to show that something is enclosed or surrounded.
For example:
The dog is in the garden.
She is in a taxi.
We also use in to show position within land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and
continents).
For example:
I used to live in Paris.
More prepositions of place:
after
She slammed the door
They ran
after
after
her.
the thief.
among
I enjoy
I found my handbag
among
among
my friends.
my luggage.
at
The secretary was sitting
The man was standing
at
at
her desk.
the taxi stand.
behind
The car park is
He never won a race,
he was always
behind
behind
the building.
the others.
between
The prisoner sat
I held the pen
between
between
the two policemen.
my thumb and fingers.
in
The pen was
He lives
in
in
the drawer.
South Africa.
In front of
next to /
beside / by
The teacher stands
The car was parked
In my English lesson
I always sit
The bank is
in front of
in front of
next to /
beside/by
next to /
beside/by
the class.
the garage.
my friend.
the hotel.
on
The painting was hanging
The boy was sitting
on
on
the wall.
the chair.
over/above
The sign hanging
I put the tablecloth
I enjoy watching the planes fly
over/above
over
above
the door read
'No smoking'.
the table.
me.
The temperature outside was
The woman was sheltering
When flying I enjoy
watching the clouds
under/below
under
zero.
a tree.
under/below
below
me.
50
3.
Prepositions of time:
Prepositions can also be used to show when something happened.
The prepositions at, on, and in
We use at for specific times.
For example:
I start work at 7.00 a.m.
I don't work at night
We use on for specific days and dates.
For example:
My birthday is on Monday.
We're having a party on 7th September.
We also use on for some special days.
For example:
On Christmas day.
We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.
For example:
In summer it's too hot to work.
I started this web site in 1999.
More prepositions of time:
Point in Time
at
on
by
till / until / up to
since
6 o’clock
Midnight
Saturday
April 10th
Christmas Day
the end of July (indicates a deadline = at the latest)
March (indicates an end point)
April
10th March
(indicates a beginning point in time)
Length of Time
in
at
during
for
throughout
July
The autumn
The morning
The middle of …..
night
the weekend
the meeting
the lesson
two days
twelve months
August / the project
51
PARTICIPLES:
A participle is a word formed from a verb that can function as part of a verb phrase.
For example:
has been
Or independently as an adjective.
For example:
working man
hot water bottle
There are three forms of participle:
1.
Past Participle:
A past participle indicates past or completed action or time. It is often called the 'ed' form as
it is formed by adding d or ed, to the base form of regular verbs, however it is also formed in
various other ways for irregular verbs.
It can be used to form a verb phrase as part of the present perfect tense.
For example:
I have learnt English. (Learnt is part of the verb phrase 'have learnt')
It can be used to form the passive voice.
For example:
Her hair was well brushed.
It can also be used as an adjective.
For example:
As an adjective.
He had a broken arm. (Broken is used here as an adjective.)
52
Comprehensive list of irregular verbs.
Base Form
arise
awake
be
break
catch
choose
do
draw
drive
eat
forbid
forgive
freeze
give
go
hide
hold
interweave
keep
know
leave
lie
make
mean
mistake
offset
pay
quit
ride
ring
run
see
speak
swim
take
tear
throw
understand
undo
wake
wear
weep
write
Irregular Verbs
Past Simple Form
arose
awoke
was / were
broke
caught
chose
did
drew
drove
ate
forbade
forgave
froze
gave
went
hid
held
interwove
kept
knew
left
lay
made
meant
mistook
offset
paid
quit
rode
rang
ran
saw
spoke
swam
took
tore
threw
understood
undid
woke
wore
wept
wrote
Past Participle Form
arisen
awoken
been
broken
caught
chosen
done
drawn
driven
eaten
forbidden
forgiven
frozen
given
gone
hidden
held
interwoven
kept
known
left
lain
made
meant
mistaken
offset
paid
quit
ridden
rung
run
seen
spoken
swum
taken
torn
thrown
understood
undone
woken
worn
wept
written
53
Base
Form
bet
Past
Simple Form
bet
All the same
Past
Participle Form
bet
bid
bid
bid
broadcast
broadcast
broadcast
burst
burst
burst
cost
cost
cost
cut
cut
cut
hit
hit
hit
let
let
let
put
put
put
quit
quit
quit
set
shut
set
shut
set
shut
split
split
split
spread
spread
spread
Base form
bend
bring
catch
creep
deal
dig
feed
feel
get
hang
have
keep
kneel
lay
lend
make
mean
pay
read
say
seek
stand
teach
tell
think
understand
weep
win
Phonetic
Symbols
Past Simple and Past Participle are same
Past Simple Form
Past Participle Form
bent
bent
brought
brought
caught
caught
crept
crept
dealt
dealt
dug
dug
fed
fed
felt
felt
got
got
hung
hung
had
had
kept
kept
knelt
knelt
laid
laid
lent
lent
made
made
meant
meant
paid
paid
read
read
said
said
sought
sought
stood
stood
taught
taught
told
told
thought
thought
understood
understood
wept
wept
won
won
54
Base Form
beat
Base Form and Past Simple are the same
Past Simple Form
Past Participle Form
beat
beaten
Base Form
become
come
run
Base Form and Past Participle are the same
Past Simple Form
Past Participle Form
became
become
came
come
ran
run
Base Form
arise
awake
be
begin
bite
blow
break
choose
do
draw
drink
drive
eat
fall
fly
forbid
forget
give
go
grow
hide
know
lie
mistake
ride
ring
rise
see
sew
shake
shrink
sink
sing
speak
swim
take
tear
throw
wake
wear
write
All are different
Past Simple Form
arose
awoke
was / were
began
bit
blew
broke
chose
did
drew
drank
drove
ate
fell
flew
forbade
forgot
gave
went
grew
hid
knew
lay
mistook
rode
rang
rose
saw
sewed
shook
shrank
sank
sang
spoke
swam
took
tore
threw
woke
wore
wrote
Past Participle Form
arisen
awoken
been
begun
bitten
blown
broken
chosen
done
drawn
drunk
driven
eaten
fallen
flown
forbidden
forgotten
given
gone
grown
hidden
known
lain
mistaken
ridden
rung
risen
seen
sewn
shaken
shrunk
sunk
sung
spoken
swum
taken
torn
thrown
woken
worn
written
55
2.
Perfect Participle:
The perfect participle indicates completed action. You form the perfect participle by putting
the present participle having in front of the past participle.
For example:
having done, having finished, having read, having spoken
It can be used to form the passive voice.
For example:
Having improved her English Jane's promotion prospects were much better.
3.
Present Participle:
The present participle is a participle that ends in ing. It can be used with the auxiliary verb 'to
be' to form the continuous tense. It always takes the ‘ing’ form of the verb, even irregular
verbs have an ‘...ing’ form, in fact virtually all English words that end with ‘ing’ are present
participles.
For example:
I am learning English. (Learning is part of the continuous verb phrase 'am learning')
We were running through the woods. (Running is part of the continuous verb phrase
'were running').
It can also be used as an adjective.
For example:
I am a working woman. (Working is used here as an adjective.)
Note! The present participle can also be used as a noun denoting the action of a verb
a gerund. But remember the present participle can be used as a verb or an adjective whilst
the gerund is used as a noun.
Note! We use past participles (-ed) to describe how we feel. We use present participles
[-ing] to describe what caused the feelings.
56
TENSES:
Things can happen now, in the future or in the past. The tenses show the time of an action or
state of being as shown by a verb. The verb ending is changed (conjugated) to show what time it
is referring to.
Time can be split into three periods The Present (what you are doing), The Past (what you did)
and The Future (what you are going to do, or hope / plan to do).
The tenses we use to show what time we are talking about are split into the Simple,
Continuous and Perfect tenses.
In English we use two tenses to talk about the present and six tenses to talk about the past. There
are several ways to talk about the future some of which use the present tenses, these are:
Present
Past
Future
1.
Simple Present
Present Continuous
Simple Past
Past Continuous
Present Perfect Simple
Present Perfect Continuous
Past Perfect Simple
Past Perfect Continuous
Using the Simple Present
Using the Present Continuous
Using the Present Perfect Simple
Using the Present Perfect Continuous
Using going to
Using shall / will
Simple Tenses:
The simple tenses are used to show permanent characteristics of people and events or
what happens regularly, habitually or in a single completed action.
A.
Simple Past Tense:
The simple past tense is used to talk about actions that happened at a specific time in
the past. You state when it happened using a time adverb.
You form the simple past of a verb by adding -ed onto the end of a regular
verb but, irregular verb forms have to be learned
To be
Statements
+
I was.
He was.
She was.
It was.
You were.
We were.
They were.
To be
Statements
I wasn't.
He wasn't.
She wasn't.
It wasn't.
You weren't.
We weren't.
They weren't.
Questions ?
Was I?
Was he?
Was she?
Was it?
Were you?
Were we?
Were they?
57
Regular Verb
(to work)
+
I worked.
He worked.
She worked.
It worked.
You worked.
We worked.
They worked.
Regular Verb
(to work)
I didn't work.
He didn't work.
She didn't work.
It didn't work.
You didn't work.
We didn't work.
They didn't work.
Questions
Did I work?
Did he work?
Did she work?
Did it work?
Did you work?
Did we work?
Did they work?
Short
answer
+
Yes, I did.
Yes, he did.
Yes, she did.
Yes, it did.
Yes, you did.
Yes, we did.
Yes, they did.
Short
answer
No, they didn't.
No, he didn't.
No, she didn't.
No, it didn't.
No, you didn't.
No, we didn't.
No, they didn't.
Simple Past Timeline
Beginning in the past
Ending in the past
I did
(Completed Action)
For example:
"Last year I took my exams."
"I got married in 1992."
It can be used to describe events that happened over a period of time in the past but
not now.
For example:
"I lived in South Africa for two years.”
The simple past tense is also used to talk about habitual or repeated actions that took
place in the past.
For example:
"When I was a child we always went to the seaside on bank holidays."
B.
Simple Present Tense:
The simple present tense is used to discuss permanent situations and the frequency of
events.
To have
I have
he has
she has
it has
you have
we have
they have
Short form
I've
he's
she's
it's
you've
we've
they've
Other Verbs (to work)
I work
He works
She works
It works
you work
we work
they work
58
Statements
+
I work.
He works.
She works.
It works.
You work.
We work.
They work.
Statements
I don't work.
He doesn't work.
Questions
Do I work?
Does he work?
She doesn't work.
Does she work?
It doesn't work.
You don't work.
We don't work.
They don't work.
Does it work?
Do you work?
Do we work?
Do they work?
Short answer
+
Yes, I do.
Yes, he does.
Yes, she does.
Yes, it does.
Yes, you do.
Yes, we do.
Yes, they do.
Short answer
No, I don't.
No, he doesn't.
No, she doesn't.
No, it doesn't.
No, you don't.
No, we don't.
No, they don't.
Regular or permanent situations:
When something happens regularly or is a permanent situation we usually use the
simple present tense. When using the simple present the verb (with the exception of
the auxiliary verbs) remains in the dictionary form (verb + s with he/she/it).
Simple Present Timeline
I do
Past
Future
For example:
Q.
"Where do you live?"
A.
"I live in Germany."
Q.
"Where does he live?"
A.
"He lives in Germany."
Q.
"What do you do?"
A.
"I'm a teacher."
Q.
"What does he do?"
A.
"He's a teacher."
Frequency:
The simple present tense is also used to show how often something happens
with adverbs of frequency - always, usually, often, sometimes, occasionally, seldom,
rarely, never, etc.... And when discussing daily, weekly, monthly, etc. routines
For example:
"I always get up at 6:00 am.”
"I never drink coffee before 12:00 noon."
"I work on my website every day.”
"Every Monday and Thursday I go to the gym.”
59
We also use the simple present to ask for and give instructions or to discuss a series of
actions.
For example:
Q.
How do I make pancakes?"
A.
Well, first you take 4 eggs and crack them into a bowl, then you weigh out 4
oz. of flour and sieve it into the eggs, etc.
The simple present tense can also be used to discuss future events.
C.
Simple Future Tense:
We sometimes use the simple present form to discuss future events. Especially when
talking about official events that happen at a set time such as timetables, meetings,
itineraries, programs, etc.
For example:
2.
Q.
"What time does the train leave?"
A.
"It leaves at 7:30 am."
Q.
"What time does the meeting begin tomorrow?"
A.
"It begins at 8.00 am."
Q.
"What time do you arrive at the airport tomorrow?"
A.
"I arrive at 6.30 pm.”
Continuous Tenses:
The continuous tenses are used when talking about a particular point in time.
A.
Past Continuous Tense:
We use the past continuous tense to describe a past action over a period of time.
Past Continuous Timeline
I started doing
I was doing
I finished doing
Past
Now
For example:
Q.
"What were they doing yesterday?"
A.
"They were working all day."
It can be used to describe what someone was doing at a particular point in time.
For example:
Q.
"What were you doing at 7:30 pm last night?"
A.
"I was watching television."
60
The past continuous can also be used to show that an activity frequently took place
over a period of time.
For example:
Q.
"What did you do on holiday?"
A.
"I went skiing a lot."
Often the past continuous is mixed with the past simple to show what was happening
when something happened. The past continuous refers to the longer event and the
simple past to the event that interrupted it.
For example:
"I was driving to work when I crashed my car."
or
As I was driving to work, I crashed my car."
B.
Present Continuous Tense:
When we talk about events that are actually happening now, we use the present
continuous tense. This is formed by using the stem of the verb and adding -ing to the
end, for example the verb "work" becomes "working". In some cases you need to alter
the spelling a bit for example the verb "die" becomes "dying".
Statements
+
I'm working.
He's working.
She's working.
It's working.
You're working.
We're working.
They're
working.
Statements
-
Questions
I'm not working.
He isn't working.
She isn't working.
It isn't working.
Am I working?
Is he working?
Is she working?
Is it working?
You aren't working.
We aren't working.
Are you working?
Are we working?
They aren't
working.
Are they
working?
Short answer
+
Short answer
-
Yes, I am.
Yes, he is.
Yes, she is.
Yes, it is.
Yes, you are.
Yes, we are.
Yes,
they are.
No, I'm not.
No, he isn't.
No, she isn't.
No, it isn't.
No, you aren't.
No, we aren't.
No,
they aren't.
Present Continuous Timeline
I am
doing
Past
Future
Now
For example:
Q.
"What are you doing?"
A.
"I'm building a website."
61
We also use the present continuous tense to talk about things that are happening
around now but are temporary.
For example:
Q.
"What are you doing these days?"
A.
"Unfortunately I'm working a lot."
It is also used to describe trends or situations that are happening but may be
temporary.
For example:
"Nowadays more and more people are shopping on the Internet.”
It is also used to describe habitual actions (usually negative).
For example:
"He's always cleaning his car.”
The present continuous tense can also be used to discuss future events:
Note! The present continuous is usually used with doing verbs (verbs of action) not
with verbs of state. The following verbs are not used in the continuous form:
c.
Condition:
belong, cost, need, own, seem
Feelings:
like, love, hate, want, wish
Beliefs:
believe, feel, know, mean, remember, think, understand
Future Continuous Tense:
The future continuous tense is the present continuous tense recycled. It is often used
to ask about and discuss future arrangements or plans with just the addition of a future
time, but you only use it when these arrangements are certain.
For example:
Q.
What are you doing next week?"
A.
"I'm working."
Q.
What's he doing tomorrow?"
A.
"He's playing tennis."
The present continuous tense is also used to talk about and make future appointments
and arrangements using the words go or come…
For example:
Q.
When are you coming to see me?"
A.
"Next week."
Q.
What are you doing tomorrow?"
A.
"I'm going to the dentist."
62
The present continuous tense is also used for verbs of arrival and departure.
For example:
"We're arriving in London at 2:30 pm"
"The train leaving from platform one is the 2:45 pm to Paris.”
The Future Continuous (will be doing):
The use of 'will be doing' in a sentence is often referred to as the future continuous. It
is used to talk about activities that will be happening at a particular time or over a
particular time in the future.
For example:
Next week we will be having a party. Can you come?
You can also use it (or the present continuous form) to talk about future plans.
For example:
We will be leaving here at 7:30 pm.
3.
Perfect Tenses:
Sometimes you need to give just a little bit more information about an action or state...and
that is where the perfect tenses come in.
The perfect tenses are used when an action or situation in the present is linked to a moment
in the past. It is often used to show things that have happened up to now but aren't finished
yet or to emphasize that something happened but is not true anymore. When they end
determines which of them you use.
Perfect tenses are never used when we say when something happened i.e. yesterday, last
year etc. but can be used when discussing the duration of something i.e. often, for, always,
since, etc.
A.
Past Perfect Simple Tense:
The past perfect simple tense is used to go further back in time when we are already
talking about the past. It can make it clear that something had already happened at the
time we are talking about.
Past Perfect Simple Timeline
Had done
Past
Now
We form the past perfect simple by using the auxiliary verb had and the -ed form of the
regular verb (the past participle) irregular verb forms have to be learned:
63
Statements
+
Statements
-
Questions
I'd worked…
He'd worked…
She'd worked…
It had worked…
You'd worked…
We'd worked…
They'd
worked…
I hadn't worked…
He hadn't worked…
She hadn't worked.
It hadn't worked…
You hadn't worked.
We hadn't worked..
They hadn't
worked…
Had I worked?
Had he worked?
Had she worked?
Had it worked?
Had you worked?
Had we worked?
Had they
worked?
Short
answer
+
Short answer
-
Yes, I had.
Yes, he had.
Yes, she had.
Yes, it had.
Yes, you had.
Yes, we had.
Yes, they had.
No, I hadn't.
No, he hadn't.
No, she hadn't.
No, it hadn't.
No, you hadn't.
No, we hadn't.
No, they hadn't.
For example:
"I had already done the shopping by the time she came home.”
“I was late for work, by the time I arrived the client had already left.”
The past perfect simple can be used to show how often something happened in the
past.
For example:
I'd visited the city many times before.
It can also be used to express unfulfilled wishes or dreams. Sometimes called
the Third Conditional.
For example:
"If I had won the lottery I would have bought a new car."
Note! If I had done something I would have done something else.
B.
Past Perfect Continuous Tense:
The past perfect continuous tense is used to talk about longer situations that continued
up to the moment in the past we are talking about.
Past Perfect Continuous Timeline
Had been doing
Past
Now
For example:
"By the time I left England we had been living in Bristol for five years.”
"Her back was sore because she had been sitting at the computer all day.”
It is also used to say how long something went on for, up to a time in the past.
For example:
We apologized because we had kept them waiting for 3 hours.
We apologized because we had kept them waiting since lunchtime.
Note! It is always for a length of time and since a point in time.
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C.
Present Perfect Simple Tense:
The present perfect simple tense is used to talk about a past time, which has very
strong meaning for the present.
Present Perfect Simple Timeline
Unfinished time (have done)
(Unfinished time)
This month
For example:
Q.
Where's Mary?
A.
She has gone out. She should be back in an hour.
We form the present perfect simple by using the auxiliary verb have/has and the -ed
form of the regular verb (the past participle) irregular verb forms have to be learned.
Statements
+
Statements
-
Questions
I've worked…
He's worked…
She's worked
It’s worked…
You've
worked.
We've worked
They've
worked…
I haven't worked…
He hasn't worked…
She hasn't worked.
It hasn't worked…
You haven't
Worked?
We haven't worked.
They haven't
worked…
Have I worked?
Has he worked?
Has she worked?
Has it worked?
Have you worked?
Have we worked?
Have they
worked?
Short
answer
+
Short answer
-
Yes, I have.
Yes, he has.
Yes, she has.
Yes, it has.
Yes, you
have.
Yes, we have.
Yes, they
have.
No, I haven't.
No, he hasn't.
No, she hasn't.
No, it hasn't.
No, you
haven't.
No, we haven't.
No, they
haven't.
The present perfect simple is used to discuss events that have just been completed at
the moment of speaking.
For example:
Q.
Have you done your homework?"
A.
"Yes, I've just finished it."
It is often used to suggest that a past action still has an effect upon something
happening in the present.
For example:
"The pound has fallen against the dollar."
It is also used to discuss unfinished time.
For example:
Q.
Have you done your homework today?
A.
No, I haven't done it yet.
Note! You are talking about today and today isn't finished, so you may do
your homework later!
65
Q.
Have you ever been to England?”
A.
"Yes I have."
Note! You are talking about something that has happened in your life and
your life isn't finished!
You can also use the present perfect to discuss something from the past but you don't
want to say exactly when.
For example:
Q.
"Are you learning any languages?"
A.
"Yes, I've begun to learn English."
This tense is often used to discuss events that have been happening over a period of
time, but aren't finished yet.
For example:
Q.
"How long have you studied English for?"
A.
"I've studied English for 2 years now."
However it is better (grammatically speaking) to use the Present Perfect
Continuous to express yourself in this way.
For example:
Q.
"How long have you been studying English for?"
A.
"I've been studying English for 2 years now."
Note! It is always for a length of time and since a point in time.
D.
Present Perfect Continuous Tense:
The present perfect continuous tense is often used (with for or since) to describe how
long something has been happening up to now.
Present Perfect Continuous Timeline
A period until now (have been doing)
(Until now)
For example:
Q.
How long have you been studying English?"
A.
I've been studying English for four years."
Note! You can just say "For four years."
Q.
How long have you been living in Germany?
A.
I've been living here since 1998.
Note! You can just say "Since 1998".
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The present perfect continuous is also used to refer to an event that may or may not be
finished when it's effect can be seen now.
For example:
Look! It's been snowing.
Note! It's not necessarily snowing now but you can see the effect (the snow on
the ground).
You should also use the present perfect continuous when talking about how long you
have been doing your current job or working on unfinished projects.
For example:
I have been working at Citibank for three years.
We have been exporting to China since 1999.
Note! It is always for a length of time and since a point in time.
E.
Present Perfect Future Tense:
Discussing the future using the present perfect simple form:
You can use the present perfect simple form to say that something will have
happened by a certain time in the future.
For example:
"This time next year I will have finished my exams."
Discussing the future using the present perfect continuous form (also known as
the future perfect continuous using will have been doing):
You can use the present perfect continuous form to say how long something will
have been happening by a certain time in the future.
For example:
"This time next year I will have been teaching English for 9 years.
4.
The Future Tenses:
Discussing the future in English can seem complicated. The present simple, present
continuous, present perfect simple and the present perfect continuous can all be used
and often it is possible to use more than one structure, but have the same meaning.
Discussing the future using going to:
We say something is going to happen when it has already been planned.
For example:
Q.
Are you going to fly to Germany?
A.
No, we're going to drive
We also use it to show something has already been decided.
For example:
"We're going to buy a new car next year.”
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We also use going to when we can see something is about to happen.
For example:
"Look at that cloud. I think it's going to rain."
"Watch out! He's going to crash into that tree!”
You can also use going to to predict the future based upon the evidence now.
For example:
"It looks as though England is going to win the European cup.
"I think my friend Mary is going to have a baby.”
Note! "I'm going to Germany." isn't really the future tense. You would have to say
"I'm going to go to Germany.”
Discussing the future using shall / will:
When we give information about the future or predict future events that are not certain
we usually use shall / will.
For example:
Q.
Who do you think will win the election?"
A.
"I'm not sure but I think the current party will win."
We can also use shall / will to make promises for the future.
For example:
When leaving work I would say - "Good night, I'll (I will) see you tomorrow.”
Shall / Will is often used when we just decide to do something.
For example:
The phone is ringing - If I decide to answer the phone I would say - "I'll (I will) get it."
It can also be used in formal situations to express planned events and is preferred in
formal written English.
For example:
The party will start at 10:00 pm.
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CONJUNCTIONS:
You can spend your life writing or speaking short sentences, but (and that's a conjunction) if you
want your English to flow a bit more naturally you need to learn how to join sentences together
and (another conjunction) you need some linking words to do this.
Basically a conjunction connects two words, sentences or clauses together:
although, and, because, but, if, or, so, unless, when, while. . .
There are two types of conjunction: coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.
You can also use conjunctions in pairs, these are called correlatives.
A.
Coordinating Conjunctions:
A coordinating conjunction, also called a coordinator, links parts of a sentence. This could
be two independent (main) clauses, two noun phrases, adjectives, adverbials etc of equal
importance.
They include: for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so,
There's a mnemonic for remembering them: FANBOYS.
For example:
It was cold. I wore a coat.
Both sentences are valid on their own, but they can be written so that they're obviously
linked; "It was cold, so I wore a coat.”
The three most used coordinating conjunctions are and, but, and or
The coordinating conjunction and usually expresses addition or combination.
For example:
I attended the meeting. + My friend attended the meeting. = My friend and I attended the
meeting.
The coordinating conjunction but expresses a contrast.
For example:
We were tired. + We were happy. = We were tired but happy.
The coordinating conjunction or expresses choice.
For example:
Would you like tea? + Would you like coffee? = Would you like tea or coffee?
There are two negative coordinating conjunctions: neither and nor
For example:
She spoke neither German nor French. ("nor" must always be part of the "neither ...
nor" construction).
Note! nor, for, and so can only join independent clauses.
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B.
Subordinating Conjunctions:
A subordinating conjunction, also called a subordinator, joins a dependent / subordinate
clause to a main verb. They are used to show any relationship between them and they turn
the clause into something that is dependent on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.
For example:
Because it was snowing ... makes no sense on its own.
We went skiing, because it was snowing. Aha!
Be warned, there are a lot of them.
Subordinating conjunctions include: after, although, because, before, if, in case, so that,
therefore, unless, when, while …
For example:
Before you came here, you thought you understood English grammar.
We left the party when the police arrived.
Note! The subordinate clause sometimes comes at the beginning of a sentence.
C.
Correlatives:
Some conjunctions are used in pairs, they are called correlative conjunctions. They are used
to show the relationship between ideas expressed in different parts of a sentence.
Most are coordinating correlatives.
They include: both ... and / either ... or / neither ... nor / not only ... but also
For example:
He was not only a scoundrel, but also a cruel man.
We use either…or together when we want to link two positives:
For example:
Either the president or the vice-president will go to the conference. (The president will
go to the conference, or the vice-president will go, not both of them though.)
We use neither…nor together when we want to link two negative ideas: For example:
Neither the president nor the vice-president were able to solve the problem. (The
president couldn't solve the problem and the vice-president couldn't solve it either.)
Some are subordinating correlatives.
if ... then / less ... than / more ... than / so ... that
For example:
She was so hungry that she could have eaten a horse.
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CLAUSE:
A clause is a part of a sentence. There are two main types: independent (main clauses),
dependent (subordinate clauses).
A.
Independent Clauses:
An independent clause is a complete sentence; it contains a subject and verb and
expresses a complete thought in both context and meaning.
For example:
The door opened.
Independent clauses can be joined by a coordinating conjunction to form complex or
compound sentences.
and
or
yet
Coordinating Conjunctions
but
nor
for
so
For example:
Take two independent clauses and join them together with the conjunction and.
“ The door opened.” "The man walked in." = The door opened and the man walked
in.
B.
Dependent Clauses:
A dependent (subordinate) clause is part of a sentence; it contains a subject and verb but
does not express a complete thought. They can make sense on their own, but, they are
dependent on the rest of the sentence for context and meaning. They are usually joined to
an independent clause to form a complex sentence.
Dependent clauses often begin with a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun (see
below) that makes the clause unable to stand alone.
after
before
in order that
since
though
whenever
whether
that
who
whose
Subordinating Conjunctions
although
as
even if
even though
once
provided that
so that
than
unless
until
where
whereas
while
why
Relative Pronouns
which
whoever
whosever
because
if
rather than
that
when
wherever
whichever
whom
whomever
For example:
The door opened because the man pushed it.
71
Dependent clauses can be nominal, adverbial or adjectival.
A nominal clause (noun clause) functions like a noun or noun phrase. It is a group of words
containing a subject and a finite verb of its own and contains one of the
following: that / if / whether
For example:
I wondered whether the homework was necessary.
Noun clauses answer questions like "who(m)?" or "what?”
An adverbial clause (adverb clause) is a word or expression in the sentence that functions as an
adverb; that is, it tells you something about how the action in the verb was done. An adverbial
clause is separated from the other clauses by any of the following subordinating conjunctions:
after | although | as | because | before | if | since | that | though | till |unless | until | when |
where | while
For example:
They will visit you before they go to the airport.
Adverbial clauses can also be placed before the main clause without changing the meaning.
For example:
Before they go to the airport, they will visit you.
Note! When an adverb clause introduces the sentence (as this one does), it is set off with a
comma.
Adverb clauses answer questions like "when?", "where?", "why?”
An adjectival clause (adjective clause or relative clause) does the work of an adjective and
describes a noun, it's usually introduced by a relative pronoun:
who | whom | whose | that | which
For example:
I went to the show that was very popular.
This kind of clause is used to provide extra information about the noun it follows. This can be to
define something (a defining clause), or provide unnecessary, but interesting, added information
(a non-defining clause).
For example:
The car that is parked in front of the gates will be towed away. (Defining relative clause.)
Information contained in the defining relative clause is absolutely essential in order for us to be
able to identify the car in question.
For example:
My dog, who is grey and white, chased the postman. ( Non-defining relative clause)
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A non-defining relative clause is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. If you take
away the non-defining clause the basic meaning of the sentence remains intact.
For example:
My dog chased the postman.
Adjective clauses answer questions like "which?" or "what kind of?”
Summary:
An adjective clause functions as an adjective (modifies a noun or pronoun); an adverb clause
functions as an adverb (describes a verb, adjective or other adverb); a noun clause is used as a
noun (subject of a verb, direct object, indirect object, predicate nominative or object of the
preposition).
Note! The difference between a clause and a phrase is that a phrase does not contain a finite
verb.
Relative Clauses:
A relative clause follows the noun it modifies. It is generally indicated by a relative pronoun at the
start of the clause, although sometimes you can tell simply by word order. The choice of relative
pronoun, or choice to omit one, can be affected by the following: Human or Non-human?
We make a distinction between an antecedent that is a human — who(m)— and
an antecedent which is a non-human — which.
Who(m) is used when the antecedent is a person.
That is used to refer to either a person or thing.
Which is used to refer to anything except a person.
For example:
I met a man and a woman yesterday. The woman, who had long blonde hair, was very
pretty.
The man she was with, was the man that / who won the race.
The race was the one that I lost.
The man, to whom the winnings were given, was with the woman who was very pretty.
Note! Whom is not used much in spoken English.
73
Restrictive or Non-restrictive?
Restrictive relative clauses are sometimes called defining relative clauses, or identifying relative
clauses. Similarly, non-restrictive relative clauses are called non-defining or non-identifying
relative clauses.
In English a non-restrictive relative clause is preceded by a pause in speech or a comma in
writing, unlike a restrictive clause.
For example:
The builder, who erects very fine houses, will make a large profit.
This example, with commas, contains a non-restrictive relative clause. It refers to a specific
builder, and assumes we know which builder is intended. It tells us firstly about his houses, then
about his profits.
Second example:
The builder who erects very fine houses will make a large profit.
This second example uses a restrictive relative clause. Without the commas, the sentence states
that any builder who builds such houses will make a profit.
Restrictive
Human
Non-human
who, that
Subject
who, whom, that
Object
whom
After preposition
whose, of whom
Possessive
Human
which, that
which, that
which
whose, of which
Non-restrictive
Non-human
who
who, whom
whom
whose, of whom
which
which
which
whose, of which
74
GERUND AND INFINITIVE:
Gerunds and infinitives are forms of verbs that act like nouns. They can follow adjectives and
other verbs. Gerunds can also follow prepositions.
A gerund (often known as an -ing word) is a noun formed from a verb by adding -ing. Not all words
formed with -ing are gerunds.
An infinitive is to + the verb.
When a verb follows a verb it either takes the gerund or infinitive form.
For example:
With the verb start - "It started to rain." or "It started raining." Both sentences have the same
meaning.
Sometimes the use of the gerund or infinitive changes the meaning of the sentence.
For example:
With the verb remember - "I remembered to do my homework". or "I remembered doing my
homework.”
In the first sentence (I remembered to do my homework), the person speaking remembered they
had some homework first and then carried out the action and did it. In the second sentence (I
remembered doing my homework.), the person speaking carried out the action (their homework)
first and then remembered doing it.
Other verbs only take one or the other, unfortunately there is no rule as to which form the verb
takes. The same is true when the verb follows an adjective.
The best way to learn their correct use is with practice - these lists may help:
A.
List of verbs which are normally followed by the gerund - with some examples:
acknowledge / admit / adore / anticipate / appreciate / avoid / celebrate / confess
contemplate / delay / deny / describe / detest / discuss / dislike / dread / endure / enjoy
fancy / finish / imagine /involve / keep / justify / mention / mind / miss / omit / postpone
quit / recall / recommend / regret / report / resent / resume / risk / suggest / tolerate
For example:
I adore reading your books.
They anticipated winning the election.
I detest going to discos.
We postponed making any decision in the meeting.
I quit smoking.
Do you recall seeing someone like that.
75
B.
List of verbs which are normally followed by the infinitive - with some examples:
afford / agree / appear / arrange / ask / attempt / care / choose / claim / come / consent
dare / decide / demand / deserve / elect / endeavor / expect / fail / get / guarantee
hate / help / hesitate / hope / hurry / incline / intend / learn / long / manage / mean / need
offer / plan / prepare / pretend / promise / refuse / resolve / say / seem / tend / threaten
For example:
I can't afford to go to the pub.
He agreed to practice more.
You should learn to express yourself.
They managed to fix the problem.
C.
List of verbs which can be followed by the gerund or infinitive - with some examples:
Some verbs can be followed by the gerund or infinitive.
1.
With no change in meaning:
begin / continue / hate / like / love / neglect / prefer / start / try
For example:
He began to learn English when he was eight.
He began learning English when he was eight.
I hate to leave.
I hate leaving.
Note! We often use the gerund when we speak about things in general, and the
infinitive for particular situations.
2.
With a change in meaning:
forget / remember / stop
For example:
I forgot to feed the cat. (The cat is hungry - he has not been fed)
I forgot feeding the cat. (The cat is ok - I fed him and then forgot about it)
Gerunds after Prepositions
When a verb is used after a preposition the verb takes the -ing form.
For example:
You can't make an omelet without breaking eggs.
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Verbs after Prepositions:
The gerund (-ing form) must be used when a verb comes after a preposition:
against / at / after / by / on / instead of / talk about / tired of / without
For example:
I am against smoking in public places.
She is good at speaking English.
I went home after leaving the party.
You can improve your English by using the Internet.
We need to keep on going.
You should tell the truth instead of lying all the time.
We can talk about going home.
I'm tired of hearing excuses.
You can't learn English without making mistakes.
77
CONDITIONALS / THE IF CLAUSE:
Overview:
A conditional sentence shows that an action is reliant on something else (there's a condition).
The two most common conditionals are real and unreal; they are sometimes called if-clauses.
The real conditional (often named 1st Conditional or Conditional Type I) describes situations
based on fact.
The unreal conditional (often named 2nd Conditional or Conditional Type II) describes unreal or
imaginary situations.
There is also what we call the 3rd conditional (often named Conditional Type III), used to express
no possibility of something having happened in the past, and the 0 conditional (often called the
zero conditional) is used to express absolute certainty.
Unless you are studying English to pass an exam or test don't try to remember the types, just
learn the structure so that you know how to express the meaning conveyed by each type - it's
going to happen - it's only going to happen if something else happens - it's never going to happen.
Note! You can swap if clauses around, but if the "if" clause comes first, a comma is usually used,
but if the "if" clause comes second, there is no need for a comma.
1st Conditional:
The first conditional is used to express situations based on fact in the present or future (things
which may happen).
Uses the simple present tense:
Formation
(IF Clause)
If I see you tomorrow,
(Main Clause)
I will buy you a drink.
(Main Clause)
I will buy you a drink
(IF Clause)
if I see you tomorrow.
or. . .
We often use unless which means 'if ... not'.
Formation
(IF Clause)
Unless you hand in your homework,
(Main Clause)
I won't mark it.
means
If you don't hand in your homework,
I won't mark it.
(Main Clause)
I won't mark your homework
(IF Clause)
unless you hand it in.
or. . .
means
I won't mark your homework
if you don't hand it in.
78
Note! We never use will, or won't in the if clause.
For example:
If I have time today, I will phone my friend. = I will phone my friend, if I have time today. (It is
possible that I will have time - therefore the condition is real).
If I go to England, I will buy some Cheddar cheese. = I will buy some Cheddar cheese, if I go
to England. (It is possible that I will go to England - therefore the condition is real).
2nd Conditional:
The 2nd conditional is used to express unreal situations in the present or future. Often used to
express a wish.
Uses the simple past tense:
Formation
(IF Clause)
If I won the lottery,
(Main Clause)
I would buy a new house.
(Main Clause)
I would buy a new house
(IF Clause)
if I won the lottery.
or. . .
Note! We never use would, or wouldn't in the if clause.
For example:
If I were you, I wouldn't do that. = I wouldn't do that, if I were you. (I am not you - therefore
the condition is unreal).
If I had more time, I would do more on my websites. = I would do more on my websites, if I
had more time. (I don't have more time - therefore the condition is unreal).
3rd Conditional:
Used to express conditions in the past that did not happen. Often used to express criticism or
regret with would have, could have or should have.
Uses the past perfect tense:
Formation
(IF Clause)
If I had worked harder,
If I had worked harder,
If I had worked harder,
(Main Clause)
I would have passed my exam.
I could have passed my exam.
I should have passed my exam.
(Main Clause)
I would have passed my exam
I could have passed my exam
I should have passed my exam
(IF Clause)
if I had worked harder.
if I had worked harder.
if I had worked harder.
or. . .
79
Note! We never use would have, or wouldn't have, etc. in the if clause.
For example:
If I hadn't helped you, you would have failed. = You would have failed, if I hadn't helped you.
(I helped you so you didn't fail).
If it had been sunny, we could have gone out. = We could have gone out, if it had been. (We
didn't go out because it wasn't sunny).
Conditional 0:
The conditional 0 is used to express general truths and facts (often things based on scientific fact).
Uses the simple present tense:
Formation
(IF Clause)
If you heat water to 100°C,
(Main Clause)
it boils.
(Main Clause)
Water boils
(IF Clause)
if you heat it to 100°C.
or. . .
For example:
If you drop a stone, it falls. = A stone falls, if you drop it. (This is an absolute truth based on
scientific fact - gravity).
If you don't do your homework, I will be disappointed. = I will be disappointed, if you don't do
your homework. (This is a general truth based on previous knowledge - you know that I am
disappointed if people don't do their homework).
Note! Most zero conditional sentences mean the same thing if "when" is used instead of "if".
80
CONDITIONALS / THE IF CLAUSE:
Overview:
A conditional sentence shows that an action is reliant on something else (there's a condition).
The two most common conditionals are real and unreal; they are sometimes called if-clauses.
The real conditional (often named 1st Conditional or Conditional Type I) describes situations
based on fact.
The unreal conditional (often named 2nd Conditional or Conditional Type II) describes unreal or
imaginary situations.
There is also what we call the 3rd conditional (often named Conditional Type III), used to express
no possibility of something having happened in the past, and the 0 conditional (often called the
zero conditional) is used to express absolute certainty.
Unless you are studying English to pass an exam or test don't try to remember the types, just
learn the structure so that you know how to express the meaning conveyed by each type - it's
going to happen - it's only going to happen if something else happens - it's never going to happen.
Note! You can swap if clauses around, but if the "if" clause comes first, a comma is usually used,
but if the "if" clause comes second, there is no need for a comma.
1st Conditional:
The first conditional is used to express situations based on fact in the present or future (things
which may happen).
Uses the simple present tense:
Formation
(IF Clause)
If I see you tomorrow,
(Main Clause)
I will buy you a drink.
(Main Clause)
I will buy you a drink
(IF Clause)
if I see you tomorrow.
or. . .
We often use unless which means 'if ... not'.
Formation
(IF Clause)
Unless you hand in your homework,
(Main Clause)
I won't mark it.
means
If you don't hand in your homework,
I won't mark it.
(Main Clause)
I won't mark your homework
(IF Clause)
unless you hand it in.
or. . .
means
I won't mark your homework
if you don't hand it in.
81
Note! We never use will, or won't in the if clause.
For example:
If I have time today, I will phone my friend. = I will phone my friend, if I have time today. (It is
possible that I will have time - therefore the condition is real).
If I go to England, I will buy some Cheddar cheese. = I will buy some Cheddar cheese, if I go
to England. (It is possible that I will go to England - therefore the condition is real).
2nd Conditional:
The 2nd conditional is used to express unreal situations in the present or future. Often used to
express a wish.
Uses the simple past tense:
Formation
(IF Clause)
If I won the lottery,
(Main Clause)
I would buy a new house.
(Main Clause)
I would buy a new house
(IF Clause)
if I won the lottery.
or. . .
Note! We never use would, or wouldn't in the if clause.
For example:
If I were you, I wouldn't do that. = I wouldn't do that, if I were you. (I am not you - therefore
the condition is unreal).
If I had more time, I would do more on my websites. = I would do more on my websites, if I
had more time. (I don't have more time - therefore the condition is unreal).
3rd Conditional:
Used to express conditions in the past that did not happen. Often used to express criticism or
regret with would have, could have or should have.
Uses the past perfect tense:
Formation
(IF Clause)
If I had worked harder,
If I had worked harder,
If I had worked harder,
(Main Clause)
I would have passed my exam.
I could have passed my exam.
I should have passed my exam.
(Main Clause)
I would have passed my exam
I could have passed my exam
I should have passed my exam
(IF Clause)
if I had worked harder.
if I had worked harder.
if I had worked harder.
or. . .
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Note! We never use would have, or wouldn't have, etc. in the if clause.
For example:
If I hadn't helped you, you would have failed. = You would have failed, if I hadn't helped you.
(I helped you so you didn't fail).
If it had been sunny, we could have gone out. = We could have gone out, if it had been. (We
didn't go out because it wasn't sunny).
Conditional 0:
The conditional 0 is used to express general truths and facts (often things based on scientific fact).
Uses the simple present tense:
Formation
(IF Clause)
If you heat water to 100°C,
(Main Clause)
it boils.
(Main Clause)
Water boils
(IF Clause)
if you heat it to 100°C.
or. . .
For example:
If you drop a stone, it falls. = A stone falls, if you drop it. (This is an absolute truth based on
scientific fact - gravity).
If you don't do your homework, I will be disappointed. = I will be disappointed, if you don't do
your homework. (This is a general truth based on previous knowledge - you know that I am
disappointed if people don't do their homework).
Note! Most zero conditional sentences mean the same thing if "when" is used instead of "if".
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DETERMINERS:
Determiners are used in front of nouns to indicate whether you are referring to something specific
or something of a particular type.
Determiners are different to pronouns in that a determiner is always followed by a noun. Therefore
personal pronouns ( I , you , he , etc.) and possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, etc.) cannot be
determiners.
The definite and indefinite articles a / an / the are all determiners.
You use a specific determiner when people know exactly which thing(s) or person/people you are
talking about.
The specific determiners are:
A.
The definite article : the
B.
Demonstratives : this, that, these, those
C.
Possessives : my, your, his, her, its, our, their
For example:
"The dog barked at the boy."
"These apples are rotten."
"Their bus was late."
You use general determiners to talk about people or things without saying exactly who or what
they are.
The general determiners are:
a few
a little
all
another
any
the indefinite articles : a, an
both
few
each
fewer
either
less
enough
little
every
many
more
most
much
neither
no
other
several
some
For example:
"A man sat under an umbrella."
"Have you got any English books that I could have?"
"There is enough food to feed everyone."
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Either and Neither:
Either and neither are used in sentences concerning a possible choice between two items.
A.
Either:
Either can mean one or the other (of two) or each of two.
For example:
I've got tea and coffee, so you can have either. (One or the other)
The room has a door at either end. (Both)
B.
Neither:
Neither means not the first one and not the second one.
For example:
Neither of the students were listening.
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CASE:
Overview:
Case is the grammatical function of a noun or pronoun. There are only three cases in
modern English, they are subjective (he), objective (him) and possessive (his). They may
seem more familiar in their old English form - nominative, accusative and genitive. There is
no dative case in modern English.
You cannot really go wrong here, we got rid of most of our cases and as a result English is
easier than many other languages because nouns and some indefinite pronouns (anyone,
someone, everyone, and so on) only have a distinctive case form for the possessive. There
are a few remnants of old English though, and pronouns have distinctive forms in all three
cases and should be used with a bit more care.
The pronoun cases are simple though. There are only three:
1.
Subjective case: pronouns used as subject.
2.
Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions.
3.
Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership.
Personal Pronoun:
Subjective / Nominative
Objective / Accusative
Possessive / Genitive
Referring to the subject
in a sentence
Referring to the object
in a sentence
The apostrophe form of
the word ("Lynne's).
I
You
He
She
It
We
They
Who
Me
You
Him
Her
It
Us
Them
Whom
Mine
Yours
His
Hers
Its
Ours
Theirs
Whose
These pronouns, and who and its compounds, are the only words that are inflected in all
three cases (subjective, objective, possessive). In nouns the first two cases (subjective and
objective) are indistinguishable, and are called the common case. One result of this
simplicity is that, the sense of case being almost lost, the few mistakes that can be made
are made often, even by native speakers, some of them so often that they are now almost
right by prescription.
A.
Objective / Accusative Case:
A noun or pronoun is in the objective case when it is used as a direct object, an indirect
object, or an object.
A noun which is directly affected by the action of a verb is put into the objective case. In
English we call this noun the "direct object" which is a little more descriptive of its function.
It's the direct object of some action.
Robert fixed the car.
In the example above, the "car" is in the objective case because it's the direct object of
Robert's action of fixing.
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Pronouns are inflected to show the objective case.
Personal Pronoun
Objective/Accusative
Referring to the object in a sentence
Me
You
Him
Her
It
Us
Them
Whom
For example:
The web site gave Arnold a headache.
Mum gave us the money.
She gave him the book.
B.
Possessive Case:
The possessive case is used to show ownership. (Arnold's website.)
The good news is that the genetive case is used less and less in English today.
You may still hear someone say something like "The mother of the bride," but it could
equally be; "The bride's mother.”
However, the possessive pattern ('s) is generally used when indicate a relation of ownership
or association with a person, rather than a thing.
For example:
Arnold's website kept growing larger and larger.
There are, as ever, exceptions to this rule. When a group of people, or animals is involved.
For example:
The members' forum.
The dogs' tails.
Singular and irregular plural nouns that don't end in 's' take -'s.
For example:
Arnold's web site.
The people's court.
Plural nouns that end in " s " take an apostrophe at the end ( ').
For example:
The girls' dresses.
87
People's names that end in "s" you can write (') or ('s).
For example:
James' job was on the line. or
James's job was on the line.
Try to avoid sounding like hissing Sid though. When an added - s would lead to three closely
bunched s or z sounds just use an apostrophe at the end.
For example:
The map of James' journey.
If you have to show joint ownership, give the possessive form to the final name only.
For example:
Tom and Jerry's famous baseball sketch.
Pronouns and determiners are inflected to show the possessive case.
Personal Pronoun / Determiner
Possessive
Arnold's
Arnold's
My
Mine
Your
Yours
His
His
Her
Hers
Its
Its
Our
Ours
Their
Theirs
Whose
Whose
For example:
This is Arnold's website. It's my website!. It's mine!
It's not Peter's web site. It's not his website. It's not his.
Have you seen her book? It's her book. It's hers.
Genitive Case:
You should still use the genetive case when talking about things that belong to other things
For example:
The door of the car.
The content of the website.
The top of the page.
Tip! If you aren't sure what to use stick to (of the)
88
C.
Subjective / Nominative Case:
Used especially to identify the subject of a finite verb.
A noun or pronoun is in the subjective when it is used as the subject of the sentence or as a
predicate noun. In the following examples, nouns and pronouns in the subjective case are
italicized.
A noun in the subjective case is often the subject of a verb
For example:
"The tree fell on my car", "the tree" is in the nominative case because it's the subject of the
verb "fell". Pronouns are inflected to show the subjective case.
Personal Pronoun
Subjective / Nominative
Referring to the subject in a sentence.
I
You
He
She
It
We
They
Who
For example:
Arnold owns this web site.
I hope to finish my homework tomorrow.
She enjoyed her English lessons.
He is an idiot.
(The word idiot is a predicate noun because it follows is; a form of the verb "be”.
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SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION GUIDE:
1.
Building a sentence:
A sentence is a group of words which starts with a capital letter and ends with a period or
full stop ( . ), question mark ( ? ) or exclamation mark ( ! ). A sentence contains or implies a
predicate and a subject.
Sentences contain clauses.
Simple sentences have one clause.
Compound sentences and complex sentences have two or more clauses.
Sentences can contain subjects and objects.
The subject in a sentence is generally the person or thing carrying out an action. The
object in a sentence is involved in an action but does not carry it out, the object comes after
the verb.
For example:
The boy climbed a tree.
If you want to say more about the subject (the boy) or the object (the tree), you can add an
adjective.
For example:
The young boy climbed a tall tree.
If you want to say more about how he climbed the tree you can use an adverb.
For example:
The young boy quickly climbed a tall tree
The sentence becomes more interesting as it gives the reader or listener more information.
The young boy quickly climbed a tall tree.
There are more things you can add to enrich your sentence.
Parts of a sentence
Adjective
Adverb
Article
Conjunction
Interjection
Noun
Preposition
Pronoun
Proper noun (subject)
Verb
Description
Describes things or people.
Alters the meaning of the verb slightly
a, an - indefinite articles
the - definite articles
Joins words or sentences together
A short word showing emotion or feeling
Names things
Relates one thing to another
used instead of a noun to avoid repetition
The actual names of people or places, etc.
Action or doing word
For example:
“Hooray!” shouted John, as he quickly climbed up a tall tree.
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2.
What makes a complete sentence?
If it helps you, think about a sentence as if it were a skeleton, the skeleton contains various
bones and these bones are put together to form different parts of the body. So are
sentences formed by words, the words are the bones and they are put together in different
ways to form sentences.
A.
Simple Sentences:
A simple sentence contains a single subject and predicate. It describes only one thing,
idea or question, and has only one verb - it contains only an independent (main)
clause.
Any independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It has a subject and a verb
and expresses a complete thought.
For example:
Arnold reads.
Even the addition of adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases to a simple
sentence does not change it into a complex sentence.
For example:
The brown dog with the red collar always barks loudly.
Even if you join several nouns with a conjunction, or several verbs with a conjunction, it
remains a simple sentence.
For example:
The dog barked and growled loudly.
B.
Compound Sentences:
Compound sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences combined using a
conjunction such as and, or or but. They are made up of more than one independent
clause joined together with a coordinating conjunction.
For example:
"The sun was setting in the west and the moon was just rising.”
Each clause can stand alone as a sentence.
For example:
"The sun was setting in the west. The moon was just rising.”
Every clause is like a sentence with a subject and a verb. A coordinating conjunction
goes in the middle of the sentence, it is the word that joins the two clauses together,
the most common are (and, or, but)
For example:
I walked to the shops, but my husband drove.
I might watch the film, or I might visit my friends.
My friend enjoyed the film, but she didn't like the actor.
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C.
Complex Sentences:
Complex sentences describe more than one thing or idea and have more than one
verb in them. They are made up of more than one clause, an independent clause (that
can stand by itself) and a dependent (subordinate) clause (which cannot stand by
itself).
For example:
"My mother likes dogs that don't bark.”
Dependent clauses can be nominal, adverbial or adjectival.
3.
The anatomy of a sentence:
A.
The Verb:
The verb is the fundamental part of the sentence. The rest of the sentence, with the
exception of the subject, depends very much on the verb. It is important to have a good
knowledge of the forms used after each verb (verb patterns), for example: to tell
[someone] TO DO [something].
Here we can see that the verb to tell is followed immediately by a person (the indirect
object, explained later), an infinitive with 'to', and, possibly, an object for the verb you
substitute for DO.
Verbs also show a state of being. Such verbs, called BE VERBS or LINKING VERBS,
include words such as: am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being, became, seem,
appear, and sometimes verbs of the senses like tastes, feels, looks, hears, and smells.
For example:
"Beer and wine are my favorite drinks." The verb "are" is a linking (be) verb.
Fortunately, there are only a limited number of different verb patterns. Verbs can
describe the action (something the subject actually does) or state (something that is
true of the subject) of the subject.
For example:
ACTION: I play football twice a week.
STATE: I've got a car.
Some verbs can represent both actions and states, depending on the context.
For example work:
ACTION: David's working in the bank.
STATE: David works in a bank.
Finding the Verb:
When you analyze a sentence, first identify the verb. The verb names assert the action
or state of the sentence.
For example:
"Working at the computer all day made Arnold's head ache."
The main verb of the sentence is "made", not working.
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Verbs identify our activity or state.
For example:
eat, sleep, run, jump, study, think, digest, shout, walk
B.
The Subject:
The subject is the person or thing the sentence is 'about'. Often (but not always) it will
be the first part of the sentence. The subject will usually be a noun phrase (a noun and
the words, such as adjectives, that modify it) followed by a verb.
Finding the Subject:
Once you determine the verb, ask a wh...? question of the verb. This will locate the
subject(s).
For example:
David works hard.
Who "works hard"? = David does = the subject.
Beer and wine are my favorite drinks.
What "are my favorite drinks"? Beer and wine are = the subjects.
The subject(s) of a sentence will answer the questions, "who or what."
C.
The Predicate:
Once you have identified the subject, the remainder of the sentence tells us what the
subject does or did. This part of the sentence is the predicate of the sentence.
The predicate always includes the verb and the words which come after the verb.
For example:
Arnold drove the race car.
"Arnold" is the subject; "drove the race car" is the predicate.
4.
More Advanced Terminology:
A.
The Object:
Some verbs have an object (always a noun or pronoun). The object is the person or
thing affected by the action described in the verb.
Objects come in two types, direct and indirect.
The direct object refers to a person or thing affected by the action of the verb.
For example:
"He opened the door."- Here the door is the direct object as it is the thing being
affected by the verb to open.
The indirect object refers to a person or thing who receives the direct object.
For example:
"I gave him the book." - here him (he)is the indirect object as he is the beneficiary
of the action.
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B.
Transitive / Intransitive verbs:
Verbs which don't have an object are called intransitive. Some verbs can only be
intransitive (disagree). In addition they cannot be used in the Passive Voice e.g.
smile, fall, come, go.
For example:
David disagreed. – intransitive.
Verbs that have an object are called transitive verbs e.g. eat, drive, give.
For example:
David gave her a present.
Some verbs can be transitive or intransitive e.g. sing
For example:
Madonna sings. – intransitive.
Madonna sings pop songs. – transitive.
C.
Adverbials:
An 'adverbial' or 'adverbial phrase' is a word or expression in the sentence that does
the same job as an adverb; that is, it tells you something about how the action in the
verb was done.
For example:
I sometimes have trouble with adverbs.
He spoke very quietly.
I've read that book three times.
She's gone to the bank.
The first tells us the frequency of the action (sometimes), the second how he carried
out the action (quietly), and the third how many times the action has happened (three).
The fourth is a little different, as in this case the adverbial (gone to the bank) is more or
less demanded by the verb (has).
To remember the form of such verbs use your notebooks to write down the different
forms.
For example:
to go [somewhere]
to put [something] [somewhere]
This information is also useful when deciding the order of adverbials in a sentence.
Unlike the previous parts of the sentence, a sentence can contain an indefinite number
of adverbials, although in practice it's a good idea to keep them few in number.
94
D.
Complement:
A complement is used with verbs like be, seem, look etc. Complements give more
information about the subject or, in some structures, about the object.
There are various definitions of 'complement', which range from the very general
(anything in the predicate except the verb, including the direct object and adverbs) to
the much more restrictive one used here.
A complement is the part of the sentence that gives you more information about the
subject (a subject complement) or the object (an object complement) of the sentence.
The complement to be used, if any, is dependent on the verb used in the sentence.
Subject complements normally follow certain verbs.
For example:
He is French.
She became an engineer.
That man looks like John.
Object complements follow the direct object of the verb:
For example:
They painted the house red.
She called him an idiot!
I saw her standing there.
The complement often consists of an adjective or noun phrase, but can also be a
participle phrase, as in the last example. It is often not very clear whether a phrase is a
complement or an adverbial.
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SPEECH:
We often have to give information about what people say or think. In order to do this you can use
direct or quoted speech, or indirect or reported speech.
1.
Direct Speech / Quoted Speech:
Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted
speech).
Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for
word.
For example:
She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations."
or "Today's lesson is on presentations," she said
2.
Indirect Speech / Reported Speech:
Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech), doesn't use quotation marks to
enclose what the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word.
When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported
speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who
spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.
For example:
Direct speech
"I'm going to the cinema", he said.
3.
Indirect speech
He said he was going to the cinema.
Tense change:
As a rule when you report something someone has said you go back a tense: (the tense on
the left changes to the tense on the right):
Direct speech
Present simple
She said, "It's cold.”
Present continuous
She said, "I'm teaching English online."
Present perfect simple
She said, "I've been on the web since
1999.”
Present perfect continuous
She said, "I've been teaching English for
seven years."
Past simple
She said, "I taught online yesterday."
Past continuous
She said, "I was teaching earlier."
Past perfect
She said, "The lesson had already
started when he arrived."
Past perfect continuous
She said, "I'd already been teaching for
five minutes."
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
Indirect speech
Past simple
She said it was cold.
Past continuous
She said she was teaching English online.
Past perfect simple
She said she had been on the web since
1999.
Past perfect continuous
She said she had been teaching English for
seven years.
Past perfect
She said she had taught online yesterday.
Past perfect continuous
She said she had been teaching earlier.
Past perfect
NO CHANGE - She said the lesson had
already started when he arrived.
Past perfect continuous
NO CHANGE - She said she'd already
been teaching for five minutes.
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Modal verb forms also sometimes change:
Direct speech
will
She said, "I'll teach English online
tomorrow."
can
She said, "I can teach English online.”
must
She said, "I must have a computer to
teach English online."
shall
She said, "What shall we learn today?”
may
She said, "May I open a new
browser?"
>
>
>
>
>
Indirect speech
would
She said she would teach English online
tomorrow.
could
She said she could teach English online.
had to
She said she had to have a computer to
teach English online.
should
She asked what we should learn today.
might
She asked if she might open a new
browser.
Note! There is no change to; could, would, should, might and ought to.
Direct speech
"I might go to the cinema", he said.
Indirect speech
He said he might go to the cinema.
You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that something is still
true i.e. my name has always been and will always be Lynne so:
Direct speech
"My name is Arnold", he said.
Indirect speech
He said his name was Arnold. or
He said his name is Arnold.
You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future event.
Direct speech (exact quote)
"Next week's lesson is
on reported speech ", she said.
4.
Indirect speech (not exact)
She said next week's
lesson is on reported speech
Time change:
If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it to fit in with the
time of reporting.
For example we need to change words like here and yesterday if they have different
meanings at the time and place of reporting.
Today
"Today's lesson is on presentations."
+ 24 hours - Indirect speech
She said yesterday's lesson
was on presentations.
Expression of time if reported on a different day
> that (evening)
this (evening)
> yesterday
today
> those (days)
these (days)
> then
now
> (a week) before
(a week) ago
the weekend before last /
> the previous weekend
last weekend
> there
here
> the following (week)
next (week)
> the next/following day
tomorrow
97
In addition if you report something that someone said in a different place to where you
heard it you must change the place (here) to the place (there).
For example:
At work
"How long have you worked here?"
5.
At home
She asked me how long I'd worked there.
Pronoun change:
In reported speech, the pronoun often changes.
For example:
Me
"I teach English online."
6.
You
She said she teaches English online.
Reporting Verbs:
Said, told and asked are the most common verbs used in indirect speech.
We use asked to report questions:
For example:
Arnold told me he felt tired.
Note! Here me is the object.
We usually use said without an object.
For example:
Arnold said he was going to teach online.
If said is used with an object we must include to:
For example:
Arnold said to me that he'd never been to Paris.
Note! We usually use told.
For example:
Arnold told me that he'd never been to Paris.
There are many other verbs we can use apart from said, told and asked.
These include:
accused / admitted / advised / alleged / agreed / apologized / begged / boasted /
complained / denied / explained / implied / invited / offered / ordered / promised /
replied / suggested / thought
Using them properly can make what you say much more interesting and informative.
For example:
He asked me to come to the party.
He asked me to come to the party.
He begged me to come to the party.
He ordered me to come to the party.
He advised me to come to the party.
He suggested I should come to the party.
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7.
Use of 'That' in reported speech:
In reported speech, the word that is often used.
For example:
He told me that he lived in Paris.
However, that is optional.
For example:
He told me he lived in Paris.
Note! That is never used in questions, instead we often use if.
For example:
He asked me if I would come to the party.
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QUESTIONS:
What is a question?
A question is a request for information or action.
When writing a question you should always end the sentence with a question mark (?)
1.
Closed questions:
Closed questions demand a yes/no, true/false or right/wrong answer.
When we want to ask yes/no questions we can use do/does, am/is/are or have/has as
question words. We use do or have or am with personal pronouns (I), we
use does or has or is with third person singular pronouns (he, she, it) and with singular
noun forms. We use do or have or are with other personal pronouns (you, we they) and with
plural noun forms.
Yes/no questions with the verb be are created by moving the verb be to the beginning of the
sentence. In other words the subject and the verb change their positions in statements and
questions.
Statement:
I am from England.
Question:
Am I from England?
When forming questions in the present continuous tense use the verb be.
I
You
He
She
It
We
They
am
are
is
is
is
are
are
speaking English.
speaking English.
speaking English.
speaking English.
speaking English.
speaking English.
speaking English.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Am
Are
Is
Is
Is
Are
Are
I
you
he
she
it
we
they
speaking English?
speaking English.
speaking English.
speaking English.
speaking English.
speaking English.
speaking English.
When forming questions in the present simple tense use the verb be, do, or have. The
auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
A.
To Be:
If there is one verb in the statement and the verb is a form of be , simply switch the
positions of the subject and verb.
I
You
He
She
It
We
They
am
are
is
is
is
are
are
English.
English.
English.
English.
English.
English.
English.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Am
Are
Is
Is
Is
Are
Are
I
you
he
she
it
we
they
English?
English.
English.
English.
English.
English.
English.
100
B.
To Do:
If there is one verb in the statement and the verb is do, simply switch the positions of
the subject and verb.
I
You
He
She
It
We
They
C.
do.
do.
does.
does.
does.
do.
do.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Do
Do
Does
Does
Does
Do
Do
I?
you?
he?
she?
it?
we?
they?
To Have:
If there is one verb in the statement and the verb is have, (with or without got to show
possession), switch the positions of the subject and verb.
I
You
He
She
It
We
They
have
have
has
has
has
have
have
(got) an English book.
(got) an English book.
(got) an English book.
(got) an English book.
(got) an English book.
(got) an English book.
(got) an English book.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Have
Have
Has
Has
Has
Have
Have
I
you
he
she
it
we
they
(got) an English book.
(got) an English book.
(got) an English book.
(got) an English book.
(got) an English book.
(got) an English book.
(got) an English book.
We can also form this style of question with Do…have…? here there is no subjectverb inversion, do is placed before the subject.
I
You
He
She
It
We
They
have breakfast every morning.
have breakfast every morning.
has breakfast every morning.
has breakfast every morning.
has breakfast every morning.
have breakfast every morning.
have breakfast every morning.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Do
Do
Does
Does
Does
Do
Do
I
you
he
she
it
we
they
have breakfast every morning?
have breakfast every morning?
have breakfast every morning?
have breakfast every morning?
have breakfast every morning?
have breakfast every morning?
have breakfast every morning?
If there is one verb, and the verb is not a form of be, the process is more complex. To
form a question add the correct form of the verb 'to do' to the beginning. Here there is
no subject verb inversion.
I
You
He
She
It
We
They
speak English.
speak English.
speaks English.
speaks English.
speaks English.
speak English.
speak English.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Do
Do
Does
Does
Does
Do
Do
I
you
he
she
it
we
they
speak English?
speak English?
speak English?
speak English?
speak English?
speak English?
speak English?
Answering a Closed Question:
For example: "Are you from England?"
You can answer closed questions with "Yes" or "No’.
You can also answer closed questions with a slightly longer answer "Yes, I am." or "No, I'm
not.”
Finally you can answer closed questions in the long form "Yes, I am from England." or "No,
I'm not from England.”
101
2.
Open Questions:
Open questions leave room for a description or opinion, and are more useful in eliciting
information.
Open questions are often called Wh.. questions: There are eight wh-questions - what, when, where, which, who, whom,
whose and why and to this list we usually add how as they are all used to
elicit particular kinds of information.
You use what when you are asking for information about something.
You use when to ask about the time that something happened or will happen.
You use where to ask questions about place or position.
You use which when you are asking for information about one of a limited number of things.
You use who or whom when you are asking about someone's identity.
You use whose to ask about possession.
You use why to ask for a reason.
You use how to ask about the way in which something is done.
Question word
What
When
Where
Which
Who
Whose
Why
How
Verb
is
is
are
is
are
is
is
are
+
your name?
the party?
you from?
your car?
you?
this web site?
this web site here?
you?
Answer
My name is Arnold.
The party is on Tuesday.
I'm from England.
The red car is mine.
I'm Arnold.
It's mine.
Because it is!
I'm fine thanks.
What, which and whose can be used with or without a noun as a question word.
For example:
What time is it? = What is the time
Which car is yours? = Which is your car?
Whose web site is this? = Whose is this web site?
Whom can only be used to elicit information about the object of the sentence. Although
using whom would be grammatically correct, we normally use who instead because it
doesn’t sound so formal.
For example:
"Whom did you see?" would normally be expressed as "Who did you see?"
Who, what, which and whose can all be used to elicit information about the subject or
object of the sentence.
For example:
If the answer is "I ate the banana." the object question would be "What did you eat?"
and the subject question would be "Who ate the banana?”
102
3.
Object Questions:
Object questions ask about the object of a sentence. The word order of the question must be
changed and the question requires the use of the auxiliary verb 'to do'.
For example:
If the answer is "I caught the train to London." the question would be "Which train did
you catch?”
If the answer is "I saw a film yesterday." the question would be "What did you do
yesterday?"
4.
Subject Questions:
There are also subject questions. These are questions that we ask to find out about the
subject. When what, which, who or whose refers to the subject, the question word comes
before the verb without the use of the auxiliary verb.
For example:
If the answer is "The train to London was late." the question would be "Which train was
late?"
If the answer is "I won the race." the question would be "Who won the race?"
More examples:
Object questions:
What did you do today?
Which film did you like best?
Who did I phone?
Subject questions:
What happened today?
Which film is best?
Who phoned me?
5.
Tag Questions:
What is a tag question?
A tag question is a short question added to the end of a positive or negative statement.
For example:
He is,
He does,
He will,
He can,
isn't he?
doesn't he?
won't he?
can't he?
103
How are they formed?
Normally a positive statement is followed by a negative tag, and a negative statement is
followed by a positive tag
For example:
+
You're English,
You're not German,
aren't you?
+
are you?
Note! The statement and the tag are always separated by a comma.
Present tense
You are a good singer,
Past tense
You didn't go to work yesterday,
Present perfect tense
You have been to London,
present tense
aren't you?
past tense
did you?
present perfect tense
haven't you?
The verb in the statement should be the same tense as the verb in the tag.
For example:
If the verb used in the statement is an auxiliary verb, then the verb used in the tag
must match it. If a modal (can, could, will, should, etc.) is used in the statement, then
the same modal is used in the tag part. If the statement doesn't use an auxiliary verb,
then the auxiliary do is used in the tag part.
For example:
Auxiliary verb
She is from England,
They aren't very nice,
She doesn't like it here,
Modal verb
You can sing,
They shouldn't do that,
No auxiliary
He eats meat,
isn't she?
are they?
does she?
can't you?
should they?
doesn't he?
Why do we use them?
Tag questions are used to verify or check information that we think is true or to check
information that we aren't sure is true. Sometimes we just use them for effect.
We show the meaning of the tag question through intonation
If the tag is a real question it has a rising intonation
For example:
The chairman's coming at 3.00, isn't
he?
If the tag is not a real question it has a flat or falling intonation.
For example:
It's a nice day today,
isn't it?
104
Note! It is possible for a positive statement to be followed by a positive tag for even more
effect (sarcasm, anger, disbelief, shock, concern, etc.).
For example:
Oh you will, will you?
You think you're funny, do you?
6.
Direct and Indirect Questions:
First I would like to say that this is my explanation of what direct and indirect questions are,
and not everyone would agree with me.
When you ask a direct question, like "What time is the meeting?" you're being quite informal,
some might even say abrupt, or even rude. You can make it more polite by adding please,
"What time is the meeting, please?", but to be even more polite we rephrase it into an
indirect question; "Do you know what time the meeting is?", or "Could you tell me what time
the meeting is?" and if you want to be really OTT "Could you tell me what time the meeting
is, please?”
They're all the same question as "What time is the meeting?", but we think it's more polite to
rephrase it, it can be confusing, and some people even think it's long-winded and
unnecessary.
Other ways of starting indirect questions are
Would you mind telling me…
Can you tell me…
Have you any idea what…
Note! When you're asking an indirect question there's no change in word order.
What time is it?
The time is …
Could you tell me what the time is?
Just to confuse you, some people include what I call "reported questions" under the term
"indirect questions", the confusion arises from direct and indirect speech. To me a reported
question is when you are reporting what someone else asked. For example: "She asked me
what the time was." (No question mark.)
Other people include things like, "Tell me the time!" but to me that's not a question, it's a
command. (Again no question mark).
105
PUNCTUATION GUIDE:
Punctuation means making points. It means putting the right kind of points in the right place so as
to mark the exact length and meaning of sentences. Proper punctuation is essential in written
English to enable the reader to understand what it is you are trying to say. Spacing with
punctuation is also important to make your writing readable. Here are some English punctuation
rules:
Common Punctuation Marks:
1.
Apostrophes [ ' ]
Apostrophes next to the letter ('s) indicate possession or belonging. No space is needed
before or after the apostrophe.
For example:
This is Arnold's web site
They are also used to show missing letters in shortened words, especially in informal
writing. No space is needed before or after the apostrophe.
For example:
It's a nice day today, isn't it? I've got an idea. Let's go out.
2.
Exclamation marks [ ! ]
Exclamation marks act as a full stop. An exclamation mark is most often used to show
shock, surprise, horror or pleasure. As with full stops you do not put a space before an
exclamation mark, but you do need at least one space after one (two spaces for purists).
There's an increasing tendency to overuse them on the internet. Stick to the rule of one
exclamation mark per sentence.
For example:
Oh! Wow! Brilliant! etc…
It was shocking!
3.
Commas [ , ]
Commas point out brief pauses in a complex sentence or separate items in long lists. They
are useful for breaking up long sentences, but only to show a natural break. You do not put
a space before a comma, but you do need a space after one.
For example:
There were a lot of people in the room, teachers, students and parents. The teachers
were sitting, the students were listening and the parents were just worrying.
Note! We don't usually put a comma before the word 'and'
4.
Colons [ : ]
Colons precede a list, an explanation or an example. You do not put a space before a colon,
but you do need a space after one.
For example:
"There are two main shopping areas in West LA and Beverly Hills: Beverly Center
Shopping Mall and Rodeo Drive.”
106
5.
Periods or Full stops [ . ]
Periods or Full stops go at the end of sentences that are statements. You do not put a
space before a full stop, but you do need at least one space after one (two spaces for
purists, but in these days of computers and e-mails one space is fine).
For example:
My name is Grace. I am a teacher.
6.
Hyphens [ - ]
Hyphens are used to connect words or syllables, or to divide words into parts. You don't use
a space on either side of a hyphen.
For example:
There were ninety-nine red balloons.
7.
Question marks [ ? ]
Question marks go at the end of sentences that are questions. As with periods or full stops
you do not put a space before a question mark, but you do need at least one space after
one (two spaces for purists).
For example:
Is my name Grace? Of course it is.
You need a question mark at the end of tag questions too.
For example:
It's a nice day, isn't it?
8.
Semicolons [ ; ]
Semicolons are used to separate two sentences that would otherwise be joined with a word
such as 'and', 'because', 'since', 'unless' or 'while'. You do not put a space before a
semicolon, but you do need a space after one.
For example:
"I'm looking forward to our next lesson; I'm sure it will be a lot of fun."
107
9.
Quotation marks (Speech marks) | Double quotes [ " " ] Single quotes [ ' ' ]
Quotation marks (single or double) are used to show words that are directly spoken (direct
speech). Only the words actually being quoted are enclosed by speech marks. You need a
space before the opening speech mark, but no space after it, and a space after the closing
one, but no space before it.
For example:
"Could everyone sit down please," said the teacher.
Another general rule is to use a comma after the introduction to quoted speech or writing.
For example:
Jamie said, "I love you."
Sometimes when writing a spoken sentence it is split in two. The speech marks must then
be placed at the beginning and end of each part of the sentence. Commas are used to
separate the spoken part from the rest of the sentence.
For example:
"I wonder," she said quietly, "whether people will ever truly understand each other."
However if you need a question mark or exclamation mark the markers that punctuate the
quoted words are enclosed by the speech marks.
Spot the difference:
"I don't understand," replied Nathan.
Nathan replied, "I don't understand."
"Do you understand?" asked Nathan.
Nathan asked, "Do you understand?"
"I don't understand!" shouted Nathan.
Nathan shouted, "I don't understand!”
108
CAPITALIZATION GUIDE:
Capitalization:
Capital letters are used for two main purposes in English:
1.
A.
to show the beginning of a sentence.
B.
to show that a noun is a proper noun.
The first letter of every new sentence is capitalized.
For example: The postman delivered the parcel. It was very heavy.
2.
The pronoun I is always capitalized.
For example: My name is Mary, I am a teacher.
3.
Proper nouns (also called proper names) are the words which name specific people,
organizations or places. They always start with a capital letter.
For example:
Each part of a person's name is a proper noun:
Kevin Costner / George W. Bush
The names of companies, organizations, newspapers or trademarks:
Microsoft / Rolls Royce / the Round Table / the Times / UNESCO
Given or pet names of animals:
Tiger / Champion / Blackie / Skippy / Sam
The names of cities and countries and words derived from those proper nouns such
as languages:
Paris / London / New York / England / English / French
Geographical and Celestial Names:
the Red Sea / Alpha Centauri / Mars / the River Thames
Particular places such as streets, monuments, buildings, meeting rooms:
the Taj Mahal - the Eiffel Tower (the tower) - Room 222 (the room)
Historical events, documents, acts, and specific periods of time:
the Civil War / the Declaration of Independence / the Freedom of Information Act /
Months, days of the week, holidays and special days:
December / Monday / Christmas / Valentine's Day
(note: seasons are not capitalized spring - summer - autumn – winter)
Religions, deities, scriptures:
Christ / God / Jehovah / Mohammed / Christianity / Judaism / the Koran / the Torah
Awards, vehicles, vehicle models and names, brand names:
the Nobel Peace Prize / the Scout Movement / Ford Focus / Ferrari / Colgate
Note! You don't need to capitalize the name of any currency in English.
109
PREFIX GUIDE:
What is a prefix?
A prefix (affix) is a word, or letter(s) placed at the beginning of another word (a base word) to
adjust or qualify its usage or meaning. The opposite of prefix is suffix.
Prefix
a(n)abacr(o)aer(o)agr(o)an(a)andrAngloanteanthrop(o)ant(i)aut(o)bar(o)bathybebibi(o)bibli(o)bradybronch(o)cardi(o)cent-, centichron(o)circumcocom-, con-, col-,
corcontr(a)-, contr(o)cosm(o)countercry(o)crypt(o)cyt(o)dedec(a)-, dek(a)decidem(o)derm(o)-,
derm(a)didynam(o)disdox(o)-
General Meaning
not, without
away
high, up
air
relating to farming
out of
man
English or British
before
relating to human beings
against
self
atmosphere
deep
completely, thoroughly, on,
about; used to form transitive
verbs
two
life
relating to books
slow
relating to breathing
heart
hundred or hundredth
time
around
together
with,
together
against, opposite
against, opposite
frost, icy cold
hidden
hollow, receptacle, cell
taking something away,
the opposite
ten
one tenth
people, nation
skin
two , double
power , force
reverse, opposite
Doxology
Example
atonality, asexuality, amoral, anarchy
abduction, absolutism, ablution
Acropolis
aeronautics, aeroplane, aerodynamics
agriculture
anachronism
androgyny, android, androgen
Anglo-Irish relations, anglophile
antebellum
anthropology, anthropomorphic
antidote, antibody, anticlockwise
autonomy, autobiography, automobile
Bathyscape, Bathysphere
bicycle, bilingual, bisexuality
biology, biography, biosphere
bibliophilia, bibliography
bradycardia
bronchitis
cardiovascular
centenary, centimeter, centipede
chronology, chronograph
circumnavigation, circumference
cooperative, cohabit
conference, connotation, context,
Congress, congregation
contradiction, contraception, controversy
cosmology, cosmopolitan
counterpoint, counterweight
cryogenics, cryoelectronics
cryptography, cryptozoology
cytoplasm, cytology
decentralization, deforestation,
dehydration
decamerous, decathlon
deciliter
demographics , democracy
dermatology, dermatitis
dynamic, dynamite, dynamo
dissent, discovery, disambiguation
110
dysecoecto(s)electr(o)embry(o)encephal(o)enne(a)eoep(i)-, eph
erg(o)euexex(o)extraflor(i)foregynhemihex(a)-
hyper-
hyp(o)inin-, il-, im-, irinterintrakilomalmaximega -, megalmetamicromidmilliminimismon(o)multinonnonoct(o)-, oct(a)oo- (" oo -oh")
outoverpent(a)postprepro-
bad, deformed, abnormal
house
outside
electricity
full
brain
nine
dawn, early
above
good
former
outside
very, more than usual,
outside, beyond
relating to flowers
before, in advance
female
half
six
excessive,
(least to greatest in order:
hypo, sub, super, hyper)
below,
(least to greatest in order:
hypo, sub, super, hyper)
extremely
not
between, from one to another
within, interior
thousand
bad, badly
most, very, large
million, very large
after, beyond
one millionth, very small
in the middle of
thousandth
small
bad, wrong
one, single
many
not
nine
eight
egg, ovum
more, to a greater degree
more than normal, too much
five
after
before
for, in favor of
dyspepsia, dystrophy, dysarthria
economy, ecology, ecosystem
ectoskeleton
electrocution
encephalitis
enneastyle
eobacterium
epitaxy
ergonomics
eulogy, euthanasia, euphemism
ex-wife, ex-president
exoskeleton
extra-thin, extra-special,
extraordinary, extraterrestrial
florist
foreskin, foreshadowing
gynecology, gynoid
hemisphere
hexapod
hyperactive, hyperthyroidism
hypodermic
inflammable , invaluable
infallibility, illiteracy, immoral, irrelevant
Intervention, international
intramural, intravenous
kilogram, kilowatt
malpractice, malnutrition
maxi-dress
megabyte, megaphone
metacarpal, metaphysics
microgram, microorganism, micronation
mid-term elections, Mid-Autumn Festival
milligram, milliliter
miniskirt, miniscule
miscarriage, misanthropy, misogyny
monolith, monorail, monotony, monocle
multiculturalism, multilingual
nonsense, non-denial
none, nonagon
octane, octopod, octagon
oocyte
to outdo, to outrun
overpopulation, over-consumption
pentagon
postpartum depression, postmodernism
prediction, preview, prenatal care
pro-choice, pro-life, promotion
111
quadr-, quartquint(i)rerect(i)scler(o)semisept(a)sex(i)Sinosphygm(o)schiz(o)-, schist(o)sub-
supersyntach(y)-, tach(o)tel(e)-, tel(o)tel(o)-, tel(e)transtriultraununizoo- (" zoo -oh")
four
fifth, five
again, repeatedly
proper, straight
hard
half
seven
six
Chinese
split
below, less than, under,
least to greatest in order:
hypo, sub, super, hyper)
extremely, more than,
(least to greatest in order:
hypo, sub, super, hyper)
together, at the same time
fast, speed
far, over a long distance
end, complete, mature
across, beyond
three
beyond a certain limit
not, opposite,
take something away
one, single
relating to animals
quadrangle, quadruplet, quartile
quintuplets, quintiped
reduction, reflection, revolution
rectify, rectangle
scleroderma atherosclerosis
semi-automatic, semi-detached
heptachord
sexivalent
Sino-American relations
sphygmomanometer
schizophrenia, schistocyte
subset,
subsonic,
subway, subtitles
superhuman,
superego,
supersonic
synergy, synchronicity
tachycardia, tachometer
telecommunications, television
teloblast
transfer, transubstantiation, transatlantic
triangle, tricolor, triptych
ultraviolet
unconstitutional,
undelete
uniform, unification
zoomorphic, zoology
112
SUFFIX GUIDE:
A suffix is an affix that is added to the end of a word that conditions its usage or meaning. The
opposite of suffix is prefix.
Suffix
-agogy
-archy
-coele, -coel
-cele
-centesis
-chondrion
-cide
-cracy
-cycle
-ectasia,
-ectasis
-ectomy
-emesis
-emia
-enchyma
-ess
esthesis,
-esthesia
-fugal
-ful
-hedron
-holic
-id
-ism
-ist
-itis
-itude
-ium
-kinesis
-less
-ly
-mania
General Meaning
leading
rule, leadership
body cavity
tumor, hernia
puncturing
small grain-like structure
murder, killing agent
rule, government
circle, cycle, unit of radio frequency
stretching
out
surgical removal
vomiting
blood condition
cellular tissue
female
sensation,
feeling
fuge, driving or travelling away from, expelling
full of, having some or much
geometric solid
love, addiction
skin rash
doctrine, act, practice, condition
person
disease, inflammation
metallic element (exception: helium)
movement (ability thereof)
lack of
-like, having the attributes of;
In modern English, primarily changes
adjectives to adverbs
an irrational but irresistible
motive for a belief or action
Example
pedagogy, demagogy
gynarchy, anarchy
mucocoel or mucocoele
hydatidocele
amniocentesis, rachicentesis
mitochondrion
suicide, genocide, parricide
democracy, androcracy
epicycle, hydrocycle
brochiectasis,
telangiectasia
appendectomy, vasectomy
hematemesis, hyperemesis
leukemia, anemia
mesenchyma, karyenchyma
actress, waitress, stewardess
synesthesia,
kinesthesis
centrifugal
hopeful, useful
icosahedron, tetrahedron
shopaholic, alcoholic
syphilid
alcoholism, Buddhism
dentist
hepatitis, gingivitis
attitude, certitude
sodium, calcium
telekinesis
homeless, useless
quick(adj) > quickly(adv),
state(n) > stately(adj),
abashed(v) > abashedly(adv)
kleptomania,
megalomania, mythomania
113
-ography,
-ogram
-oid
-ology
-omics
-onomy
-onym
-osis
-osis
-philia
-phobia
-phone
-science
-scope
-ship
-stan
-tropism
-us
-ward
-wise
writing,
description
resembling
study, science
area of biology
knowledge of
name, word
process, action
diseased condition
attraction
fear
sound, audio
knowing
from Greek skopos , view;
instrument for viewing and observing spaces
circle, state of being
land, country
to turn
inflammation
direction
direction
stenography,
geography, ideogram
solenoid, hominoid
astrology, biology
proteomics
astronomy
antonym, heteronym
mitosis, osmosis
psychosis
hemophilia
acrophobia, mysophobia
telephone, homophone
omniscience
microscope,
telescope
friendship, relationship
Afghanistan
phototropism
ulcus (ulcer)
southward, inward
clockwise
114
COMMON MISTAKES AND CONFUSING WORDS IN ENGLISH:
Let's face it, English can be confusing. A lot of words are similar but with different meanings. It is
almost impossible to avoid making mistakes in English, but if you can get your head around these
explanations, you might be able to avoid making these ones
accept vs. except
Accept is a verb, which means to agree to take something.
For example:
"I always accept good advice."
Except is usually used as a preposition or conjunction, which means not including.
For example:
"I teach every day except Sunday(s)."
Note! except is usually a preposition and accept a verb. In rare circumstances except can
be used as a verb.
For example:
On a road sign: "No entry, buses excepted.
advice vs. advise
Advice is a noun, which means an opinion that someone offers you about what you should
do or how you should act in a particular situation.
For example:
"I need someone to give me some advice."
Advise is a verb, which means to give information and suggest types of action.
For example:
"I advise everybody to be nice to their teacher."
Note! In British English the noun form often ends in ...ice and the verb in ...ise
affect vs. effect
Affect and effect are two words that are commonly confused.
affect is usually a verb (action) - effect is usually a noun (thing)
Hint: If it's something you're going to do, use "affect." If it's something you've already done,
use "effect.”
To affect something or someone.
Meaning: to influence, act upon, or change something or someone.
For example:
The noise outside affected my performance.
The use of "effect" as a verb is what causes the most confusion between these two words.
To have an effect on something or someone.
Note! effect is followed by the preposition on and preceded by an article (an, the)
Meaning: to have an impact on something or someone.
For example:
The drug has many adverse side effects.
Note! Just remember: "affect" = to influence, and "effect" = to bring about
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a lot / a lot / allot
A lot, meaning a large amount or number of people or things, can be used to modify a noun.
For example:
"I need a lot of time to develop this web site."
It can also be used as an adverb, meaning very much or very often.
For example:
"I look a lot like my sister.”
It has become a common term in speech; and is increasingly used in writing.
Allot is a verb, which means to give (especially a share of something) for a particular
purpose.
For example:
"We were allotted a desk each."
Note! Alot does not exist! There is no such word in the English language. If you write it this
way - imagine me shouting at you - "No Such Word!”
all ready vs. already
All ready means "completely ready".
For example:
"Are you all ready for the test?"
Already is an adverb that means before the present time or earlier than the time expected.
For example:
"I asked him to come to the cinema but he'd already seen the film."
"Are you buying Christmas cards already? It's only September!"
all together vs. altogether
All together (adv) means "together in a single group.”
For example:
The waiter asked if we were all together.
Altogether (adv) means "completely" or "in total”.
For example:
She wrote less and less often, and eventually she stopped altogether.
Note! To be in the altogether is an old-fashioned term for being naked!
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