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Identification, Observation, and Research on a Specific Rock Located Behind Goffstown
High School, Goffstown, NH, and Relevant Research on the Rock Cycle, formation of
the Appalachian Mountains, and the Impacts of Localized Glaciation
Hannah Gifford
Earth Science Honors
Period 2
Dr. Houghton
3/22/12
Abstract: The formation of rocks is an important concept in Earth Science. Research on
the rock cycle, the geologic history of local mountain ranges, and the impacts of localized
glaciation may lead to a better understanding of how rocks form. Knowledge of research
techniques, proper scientific writing, and appropriate citations is imperative to success in
science. Goffstown High School (GHS) Earth Science Honors students predict the type of
rock located behind the school, research and write a scientific paper about rocks, the rock
cycle, the formation of the Appalachian Mountains, and the affects of glaciation on the
formation of rocks in New Hampshire. There are 3 main types of rocks; igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary. No sedimentary rocks are found in NH. The Appalachian
Mountains formed over a 200 million year period beginning about 420 million years ago.
Three mountain building events, Taconic, Alleghanian, and the Acadian orogenies led to
the formation of this mountain range. The Laurentide Glacier impacted the current NH
landscape by wearing down bedrock, weathering and eroding mountaintops, carving out
deep valleys, forming river beds, and carrying boulders and sediments to new areas. The
rock located behind the school is Granite.
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Objectives: 1) learn to use the Internet to do scientific research, 2) study the formation of
the Appalachian Mountains, rocks in New Hampshire and their characteristics, the
impacts of glaciation on the New England landscape, and the different types of rocks
formed and found around the world, 3) Identify, observe, and research the type of rock
located in the patch of forest located to the north of the Goffstown high school (GHS)
soccer field, Goffstown, NH, 4) discover how to write a scientific paper using the
scientific method, and learn to properly format a scientific paper, 5) use in text citations,
and properly cite work.
Hypothesis/Prediction: The rock located in the woods north of the Goffstown High
School stadium field is an igneous rock (Figure 1).
Introduction: The Appalachian Mountains is a long string of mountains that run from
Newfoundland to Alabama. The range is about 1,600 miles long and about 100 miles
wide (Hoffman, 2009). Their formation started about 600 million years ago. The process
of their formation has been broken down in three different orogenies, which eventually
led up to what they are today (Lutgens and Tarbuck, 1997).
The formation of the Appalachians began around 600 million years ago when the
Ancestral North Atlantic Ocean began to close. As the ocean began to close, it was
thought that two subduction zones also formed: one on the coast of Africa and the other
off the coast of the North America in a small microcontinent (Lutgens and Tarbuck,
1997, Figure 2).
The first part of the mountain building process began 450-500 million years ago.
During that time the small microcontinent and the North American continent collided and
left a small Island Arc called the Taconic Island Arc. Through this process, the crust of
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North America deformed and crystalline rock began to form from the remnants of the
collision. This was the first of the mountains to get added to the chain. This created the
Western Piedmont and Blue Ridge parts of the Appalachians (Lutgens and Tarbuck,
1997). This is known as the Taconic Orogeny (“Formation of the Appalachian”
Mountains, Figure 2).
The second part of the mountain building process happened 400 million years
ago. During this process the Ancestral North Atlantic was still closing. The Atlantic arc
that was left over after the Taconic Orogeny has collided with the North American
continent. The islands were added to the existing start of mountains, and caused them to
grow larger. The subduction zone that was present under the Microcontinent and Atlantic
Arc was present underneath the coast of North America (Lutgens and Tarbuck, 1997).
This process is known as the Arcadian Orogeny (“Formation of the Appalachian”
Mountains, Figure 2).
The final Orogeny occurred 250-300 million years ago. This final step resulted in
the collision of the North American Continent with the African Continent. The African
Plate and North American Plate formed a convergent boundary, meaning that the African
Plate had slid underneath the North American Plate. The convergent boundary then
connected the North American Continent with the African continent. The force of one
plate sliding under the other resulted in the upward force of the North American
Boundary which in turn created the Appalachian Mountains (Lutgens and Tarbuck,
1997). This final Orogeny is known as the Allegheny Orogeny (“Formation of the
Appalachian Mountains”, Figure 2).
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During the formation of the Appalachian Mountains, the rocks that make up the
mountains had gone through processes to become or change into different types of rocks.
There are three types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary (Lutgens and
Tarbuck, 1997). Igneous rocks are formed when hot magma cools and crystallizes. There
are two types of igneous rocks, intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks. Intrusive cool very
slowly and usually contain a large amount of crystal while extrusive cool almost
immediately and contain little to no crystals (Lutgens and Tarbuck, 1997). Metamorphic
rocks are made from preexisting rocks that are usually changing from one rock type to
another (Lutgens and Tarbuck, 1997). Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediments are
compacted and cemented. Weathering and erosion over time helps these rocks settle and
form into the sedimentary rocks (Lutgens and Tarbuck, 1997). All three rocks can go
through a series of changes, in what is known as the rock cycle. During the cycle many
factors, such as weathering, erosion, melting and crystallization affect and change rocks
from one form to another (Lutgens and Tarbuck, 1997, Figure 3).
Before the continents were separated as they are today they were once connected
in a landmass known as Pangaea (Hoffman, n.d.). Each continent was located on a
floating piece of land known as a plate. The plates, which are located in the lithosphere,
were and still are constantly in motion. The plates, with their respective continents on
them began to drift slowly apart over millions of years (Hoffman, n.d.). The three
orogenies were the processes that connected the landmasses of North America and Africa
as Pangaea was forming. The rocks that formed the connection of North America and
Africa were sedimentary rocks. As the plates collided, the African Plate gave way and
slid under the North American Plate causing a convergent boundary. The sedimentary
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rocks built up over time and formed the huge mountains. But because of all the squeezing
and compressing of the rocks, heat was generated and eventually the sedimentary rock
underwent metamorphosis and turned into igneous rocks (Figure 3). This is the reason
that most rocks found in the New England area are igneous and not sedimentary
(Hoffman, n.d.).
The Appalachian Mountains underwent drastic changes since they were created
millions of years go. The most recent changes that the Appalachian Mountains have gone
through include glaciation, weathering and erosion. About 55,000 and 18,000 years ago,
New England went through a time period where it was covered in ice. During that time,
glaciers and ice covered all the land masses and forced populations to migrate to warmer
places (“Formation of the Appalachian Mountains”). The Laurentide Ice Sheet was the
name of the glacier that covered all of Canada and New England during the last ice age.
When glaciers move they carry loose rocks and sediments with them and can transport
them great distances. The Laurentide ice sheet was the main cause of many large rock
deposits located around New England (Rittenour, n.d.).
Glaciation has played a huge part in the New Hampshire landscape. Glaciation
can alter and change a landscape by picking up rocks and depositing them elsewhere.
Glacial deposition and erosion happens when glaciers pick up rocks and carry and
transport them to other places, which causes erosion while transporting them which
causes deposition (Nelson, 2003). The bedrock of New Hampshire has also been
modified and changed throughout the years from the glaciation (Rittenour, n.d., figure 4).
Since New Hampshire was affected by the last glacial period, its landscape had suffered
from glacial erosion and deposition. Glaciation was most likely the reason explaining
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how the study rock managed to be moved to the spot behind Goffstown High School.
During the glacial time, the ice carried and deposited the rock to the position it is in right
now, and the rock will remain there forever until the next glacial period (Nelson, 2003,
Figure 5).
Weathering and erosion have also shaped New Hampshire. Rivers and streams
that were created after glaciation had shaped out the landscape of New England and
eroded much of the Appalachian Mountains. Even today the effects of weathering and
erosion to the Appalachian Mountains are still occurring ("Ohio Valley Environmental
Coalition”).
The formation of the Appalachian Mountains, glaciation, weathering and erosion
have all impacted New Hampshire’s landscape and will continue to change it geology
over time.
Study Area: The rock that was studied was located at Goffstown High School in
Goffstown, NH U.S.A. It was behind the school in the forest located next to the main
sport field. The rock was about 30 feet into the trail and about 10 feet off of the main trail
(Figure 1).
Methods: On Tuesday, March 20, 2012, Dr. Houghton’s period 1 Earth Science class
went outside to look at a rock that was located behind GHS (Figure 1). We took pictures,
collected data and made observations about the unknown rock (Figure 6). Each student
made a prediction about what kind of rock the unknown rock was. Using that
information, we researched information about the formation of the Appalachian
Mountains, rock types, rock cycle and glaciation in New Hampshire in order to back up
our prediction.
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Results: The study rock was a grayish color and covered with green moss. It also had
many braches and twig on it from surrounding tress. Large cracks were sporadically
found. The rock was covered with many large and small crystals (Figure 5 ). A puddle of
dark murky water surrounded the bottom of the rock.
Conclusion: I observed a rock found behind Goffstown High School and collected data
to conclude what type of rock it was. I later conducted research about the formation of
the Appalachian Mountains, the three orogenies and the rock cycle to back up my
prediction. I learned how to properly conduct research to write a scientific paper with
correct in-text citations and figures.
The study rock was most likely an igneous rock. The crystals provided evidence
that the rock was created with much heat and pressure and cooled slowly over time. The
Appalachian Mountain formation created the much heat and pressure needed causing
many rocks to change from sedimentary to igneous rocks. This explains why the rock is
most likely igneous. During glaciation periods in New England, many rocks were
transported and deposited by the moving ice which would explain how the rock had
landed in that spot. My data was the same as the rest of the class. Twenty out of twenty
students predicted the study rock was igneous (Table 1).
The formation of the Appalachian Mountains caused many rocks to change from
sedimentary to igneous rocks. The movement of the plates and the breakup of Pangaea
caused the change of rock types and left New Hampshire with many more igneous rocks
than sedimentary. Glaciation weathered and eroded the landscape of NH and transported
and deposited many large rocks in much of New England. The formation of rocks also
contributed to the landscape and geology of NH.
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Finishing the lab on time was hard for me. I had many other projects to finish so I
wasn’t able to finish this one until last minute. Also I was unsure I the website I found
contained scientifically correct information.
The class data indicated that the rock was granite, an intrusive igneous rock, as I
had predicted (Table 2). The formation of the Appalachian Mountains turned many rocks
from sedimentary to igneous and glaciation transported those rocks throughout the
landscape. This and the class’s data supports the prediction that the rock was igneous.
After writing this paper, I now have a better understanding of how to properly format and
use in-text citation in a scientific paper. The landscape of NH has been changed by many
factors over the years and will forever be changing.
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Literature Cited:
"Building the Northern Appalachian Mountains and New England - Jamestown RI Visitor
Information." Jamestown RI. Web. 08 Apr. 2012.
<http://www.jamestown-ri.info/northern_appalachians.htm>.
Hoffman, Doug L. "The Resilient Earth." Appalachian Mountains Rock Ice Age. 12 Nov. 2009.
Web. 08 Apr. 2012.
<http://www.theresilientearth.com/?q=content/appalachian-mountains-rock-ice- age>.
"Landforms of North America, Mountain Ranges of North America, United States
Landforms, Map of the Rocky Mountains - Worldatlas.com." World Atlas
including Geography Facts, Maps, Flags. Web. 08 Apr. 2012.
<http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/nalnd.htm>.
Nelson, Stephen A. "Glaciers and Glaciation." Tulane University. 27 Oct. 2003. Web. 08 Apr.
2012.
<http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol111/glaciers.htm>.
"Ohio Valley Environmental Coalition." Mountaintop Removal Coal Mining and the "Clean
Coal" Myth. Web. 08 Apr. 2012.
<http://www.ohvec.org/old_site/mountains02.htm>.
Roll, Kempton H. "THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS." MAIN. Web.
08 Apr.
2012.
<http://main.nc.us/sams/blueridge.html>.
Rittenour, Tammy M. "ICE AGES IN NEW ENGLAND." Ice Ages in New England. Web.
10 Apr. 2012. <http://www.bio.umass.edu/biology/conn.river/iceages.html>.
Tarbuck, Edward J., and Frederick K. Lutgens. Earth Science. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall, 1997. Print.
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Tables:
Table 1. Class results of the predicted rock type.
Type of Rock
Metamorphic
Number of Students 0
Igneous
Sedimentary
20
0
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Table 2. New Hampshire igneous (Alden 2010) and metamorphic rocks (Fichter
2000) defined.
Igneous Rocks
Granite-“Intrusive igneous, quartz and
feldspar minerals, course, light in color”
Metamorphic Rocks
Amphibolite-“Lineated schistose
foliation, plagioclase, quartz, mica
minerals, dark in color, course”
Diorite-“Intrusive igneous, feldspar and Gneiss-“Banded foliation, quartz,
hornblende minerals, light in color,
feldspar, biotite, and amphibole
course”
minerals”
Granodiorite-“Intrusive igneous, course, Serpentinite-“Nondescript rock, dark
biotite, hornblende, plagioclase, and
green to yellow-green in color,
quartz minerals”
magnesium silicate minerals”
Syenite-“Intrusive igneous, course,
Slate-“Slatey cleavage foliation, chlorite
potassium feldspar and plagioclase
minerals, smooth and flat, usually
feldspar minerals, light in color”
green in color”
Pegmatite-“Intrusive igneous, biotite
Schist-“Schistose foliation, quartz,
and alkali feldspar
feldspar, and biotite minerals”
Gabbro-“Intrusive igneous, dark in
Quartzite-“Nondescript rocks, quartz
color, course, plagioclase, amphibole,
sand grain minerals, light in color,
and pyroxene minerals, course”
glassy”
Rhyolite-“Extrusive igneous, usually
dark in color, fine-grained”
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Figures:
Figure 1. Study Area: Goffstown High School, Goffstown, NH, USA.
(http://nhmapper.sr.unh.edu/output/GRANIT_BASE_nhmapper.sr.unh.edu67210
467217650771.jpg,
http://www.freestateproject.org/community/multimedia/images/nh-map1.gif)
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Figure 2. How rocks change from one form to another during the rock cycle
(http://www.washington.edu/uwired/outreach/teched/projects/web/rockteam/
WebSite/rockcycle.htm.htm)
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Figure 3. How the Appalachian Mountains formed through the three orogenies.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alleghanian_orogeny)
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Figure 4. The bedrock of New Hampshire
(http://stategeologists.blogspot.com/2010_07_01_archive.html)
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Figure 5. The past glaciation of New England and Canada.
(http://esp.cr.usgs.gov/info/eolian/task2.html)
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Figure 6. The study rock that was located behind Goffstown High School in
Goffstown, NH.