AP Government Exam Review Sheet
Chapter 2
Pluralism
Elitism
hyperpluralism
The Articles of Confederation problems
The Constitutional Convention:
Fear of factions
Separation of power
Limited government
Checks and balances
Representation:
The New Jersey Plan
The Virginia Plan
The Connecticut Compromise
3/5 Compromise
Slave Trade Compromise
Majority rule, Minority rights
Requirements for voting left to the states
Personal freedoms guaranteed:
Habeus corpus, no bills of attainder, no ex post facto,
No religious test, trial by jury
Democracy v. Republic
Ways our founding fathers avoided democracy:
House of Reps v. Senate
Electoral College
Change = slow process, multistep, checks and balances
Ratification
Federalists v. AntiFederalists
The Bill of Rights – limited government
Amendment Process - formal
Informal Processes of Constitutional Change
Judicial interpretation / judicial review – Marbury v Madison
Political parties
Chapter 3: Federalism –
Federal v.Unitary v. Confederate Authority
Effects of Federalism:
Decentralization
Courts gain power
Decentralizes policies –
inconsistent across states,
Distribution of Powers – see table on page 75
Tenth Amendment
Eleventh amendment
Supremacy Clause
Implied powers –
The elastic clause
McCulloch v. Maryland
Inherent Powers
Commerce Clause –
Gibbons v. Ogden
Gilded Age – narrows definition
Depression – courts broaden definition again
Civil Rights – continued . . .
Nixon - backtracking – New Federalism &devolution
U.S. v. Lopez – cut down gun free school zones
State Obligations
Full faith and credit
Extradition
Privileges and Immunities
State reserved Powers – police powers
Concurrent powers
Dual Federalism v. Cooperative Federalism
Fiscal Federalism
Categorical (project or formula) grants v. Block Grants
Unfunded mandates
Conflicted Federalism
Chapter 12: Congress
The Representatives and Senators
Generalists
Advantages of incumbency
franking
Pork barrel /earmark
Role of Party Identification
Gerrymandering
The House – 435 strong – age 25, residency req.
Institutionalized, centralized, hierarchical
More party loyalty
Initiate all revenue bills
impeachment charges.
Rules Committee
Leadership: Speaker, Majority Leader, Whips
The Senate – 100 –age 35 – residency req
Ratify treaties and confirm officials and hold impeachment trials
Egalitarian
Floor amendments
Filibuster - the “nuclear option”
Role of VP
Senate Majority Leader Senate Minority leader
Committees and Subcommittees
Standing committees
Joint committees
Conference committees
Select committees
conference committee
Chairs and Seniority System
Caucuses
Congressional Staff- casework
Committee Staff
Staff agencies Congressional Research Service
Government Accountability Office -GAO
Congressional Budget Office – CBO
The Congressional Process
Polarization / “unorthodox” lawmaking.
omnibus bills
Party Influence –
Most cohesive votes – on leadership
Least cohesive – issues related votes
Greater polarization due to gerrymandering
Constituency v. Ideology – 3 ideas
Trustee idea
Instructed delegates idea
Politicos
saliency
Lobbyists and Interest Groups
Chapter 13: The Presidency
Strength of the Executive: Myth v. Reality
Elections: 22nd Amendment (1951)
Impeachment
Succession: 25th amendment (1967)
Presidential Powers
Constitutional Powers
National security – commander in chief, treaties (2/3 vote of Senate), ambassadors (majority of Senate),
Legislative – state of the union, recommend legislation, convene both houses, adjourn Congress if they can’t agree, veto
Administrative – execute the law, nominate officials, request opinions, fill vacancies
Judicial - reprieves and pardons, nominate judges
The federal bureaucracy : responsive to the President’s policies v. “neutral competence”
Executive Orders
The Vice President
The Cabinet
The Executive Office
Security Council, NSC – links foreign policy and military advisers
The Council of Economic Advisers - COE – three appointed leaders / advisers. Prepare annual report.
Office of Management and Budget - OMB – Prepare the president’s budget.
The White House Staff
2 types of organization: hierarchical v. wheel and spokes
Presidential Leadership of Congress:
Chief Legislator
Veto, pocket veto, line item veto
Signing statements
Party Leadership
Slippage of Party Support
Leading the Party – coattails.
Electoral Mandates
The President and National Security Policy
Negotiate, command armed forces, wage war, manage crises, garner support from Congress
Chief Diplomat – diplomatic recognitions & termination, treaty negotiations , executive agreements
Commander in Chief –
War Powers Resolution
Crisis Manager –
Working With Congress – “two presidencies” – foreign and domestic.
The Public Presidency, bully pulpit, ceremonial duties.
Presidential Approval ratings
Press secretary, Press conferences
Chapter 14: Congress, the President and the Budget
Source of Federal Revenue
Taxes: Income Tax – 16th amendment - IRS
Progressive tax, Flat taxes, sales taxes
Social Insurance Taxes –
Borrowing: Treasury bonds, intergovernmental borrowing
structural debt v. temporary debt
Tax Loopholes
Tax expenditures –Subsidies
Tax indexing, sequestration
Federal Expenditures
The Rise and Decline of the National Security State
military-industrial complex
Rise of the Social Service State
Social Security, disability, Medicare, Prescription drug benefit
Incrementalism, Uncontrollable Expenditures/ entitlements
The Budgetary Process
The OMB
House Ways and Means and Senate Finance Committees
Budget Committees and CBO – Congressional Budget Committee (Congress’s OMB)
Appropriations Committees
The GAO – Governmental Accounting Office
Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974
Budget resolution
Budget reconciliation
Authorization bill
Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act – Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act.
1993 –Budget shutdown, divided government.
Chapter 15: The Federal Bureaucracy
Weber - bureaucracy=5 characteristics:
chain of command, system of rules, impersonality, merit principle, division of labor.
Myths v. Realities
Patronage v. Pendleton Service Act &Merit system
Hatch Act
Office of Personnel Management –
General Schedule
Due process rights
Presidential Appointment Positions
Cabinet
Independent Regulatory Commissions
FRB – Fed Reserve Board
NLRB, FCC, FTC, SEC
5-10 members apptd. By Pres, fixed terms, hard to fire
Government Corporations
TVA, Comstat (sells satellite timesharing), USPS, Amtrack
Independent Executive Agencies
All the rest of the gov’t – not cabinet, regulatory commissions, gov’t corps.
Appt by president and serve at his will
45-50 of them
Ex: General Services Admin , NASA, NSF
Bureaucracies as Policy Implementors
Administrative Discretion
slippage
Bureaucracies as Regulators
History of Regulation
Munn v. Illinois
Interstate Commerce Act
NLRB - got to define “unfair labor practices”
Deregulation
How Presidents Try and Control the Bureaucracy
-
Appt the right people to head the agency
- Issue executive orders
- Alter/ reorganize an agency’s budget
How Congress Tries to Control the Bureaucracy
Influence appointments
Alter budgets
Hold hearings
Rewrite the legislation or provide more detail.
Iron Triangles and Issue Networks
Chapter 16 - The Federal Courts
Types of Courts:
Supreme Court, 12 federal courts of appeal, Court of Appeals for the federal circuit, 91 district courts
Criminal v. Civil cases
state v federal courts
Litigants = Plaintiff + Defendant
Case = plaintiff v. defendant
standing
class action
justiciable disputes
amicus curiae briefs.
Constitution gives power to create inferior courts to Congress.
Judiciary Act of 1789
Lower federal courts=general jurisdiction.
original jurisdiction
Appellate jurisdiction
District Courts – 91 Federal courts. One in each state plus PR, DC.
original jurisdiction=have trials and seat juries.
Cases heard: federal crimes, civil suits under federal law, civil suits between those in different states over $75,000
(called “diversity of citizenship” cases) , bankruptcy supervision, review of federal regulatory agencies, admiralty
and maritime law, supervise naturalization.
US Marshals, Magistrates, U.S. Attorneys
Courts of Appeal –
2 judicial circuits, including one for DC.
3 judge panels
The Supreme Court – .
Eight associate justices and one chief justice.
original jurisdiction –bt/w US and states, bt/w 2 or more states, one state & citizens of another state, bt/w a state & a country
All others appellate, must involve a significant federal question, must involve federal law.
Lifetime appts
Senatorial courtesy
recess appointments
“nuclear option”
Factors affecting Pres. appointment / senate approval
Rule of four
writ of certiorati
Solicitor general – In charge of appellate court litigation of the federal government.
Oral arguments
amicus curiae briefs.
Dissenting opinions and concurring
5 votes to establish judicial precedent.
stare decisis – let the decision stand.
original intent – strict constructionism.
interpreting population – lawyers and judges
implementing population – police, teachers, etc
A Historical Review
Marbury v. Madison – judicial review
Pre-Civil War – strength of Feds and slavery
C War – 1937 – Feds in the economy
1938 – present – personal liberty, social and political equality
FDR – Schecter Poultry v. US, Courtpacking scheme
The Warren Court – Brown, Miranda, Escobedo, Gideon, Baker v. Carr
The Burger Court – More conservative than Warren, but upheld Miranda to a degree, ruled in Roe and US v. Nixon
Rehnquist Court – Simply limited rather than reversed liberal decisions of past.
judicial activism v. judicial restraint.
amendment process =Congress’ defense against judicial activism.
Chapter 4
Civil Liberties – Bill of Rights
Incorporation
1833 - Barron v. Baltimore said Bill of Rights restrained only the federal government.
1925 – Gitlow v. New York changed that, using the 14th amendment.
14th amendment due process clause
Freedom of Religion
establishment clause - Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion
free exercise clause – guarantees citizens’ freedom to worship or not worship as they please.
Establishment Clause:
Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971) “Lemon test”:
1. Have a secular legislative purpose 2. neither advances nor inhibits religion
2. No excessive government entanglement with religion.
1962 – Engel v. Vitale banned prayer in school
Generally support religious symbols as one of many symbols communicating a historical / cultural message.
Free Exercise Clause:
1988 – Employment Division v. Smith (peyote case) –
State laws ok’d that indirectly interfere with religion but are not specifically aimed at religion.
Granted protection to others:
Amish can remove kids from school after 8th grade, Jehovah’s witnesses cannot be required to salute the flag, you
can be a conscientious objector on religious grounds.
Freedom of Expression
Prior Restraint = censorship. Generally not allowed
1919 – Schenk v. the US – can ban speech that poses a “clear and present danger”
Obscenity:
1973 – Miller Case. Obscene speech (1) appealed to a prurient interest in sex (2) shows “patently offensive”
sexual conduct specifically defined by an obscenity law (3) the work lacks literary, artistic, political or scientific
value.
Libel and Slander
Libel – written statements that are malicious and damage a person’s reputation
Slander – spoken defamation
- New York Times v. Sullivan – In regard to statements about public officials: must prove that the writer knew
statements were untrue and intended harm.
- Private individuals must show info was defamatory and the author was negligent.
Symbolic Speech
- Tinker v. DesMoines – courts ruled students can wear arm bands to school as symbolic speech.
- Texas v. Johnson – 1984 – struck down a TX law banning flag burning.
Commercial Speech
FTC (Federal Trade Commission) restricted more but must: advance a substantial government interest, be least
restrictive.
Cannot make false claims. Cannot advertise unlawful activity.
Regulation of Broadcasting
FCC oversees – radio and TV. Must obtain a license (unlike newspapers)
- Red Lion Broadcasting Company v. FCC - Regulate them more than newspapers b/c frequencies are limited.
- FCC restricts obscene words. Upheld in 1978.
- United States v. Playboy Entertainment Group – If a less restrictive remedy was available, it should be used
Freedom of Assembly
Right to Assemble – time, place, manner restrictions to prevent disruption to public order.
Abortion protesting– courts have set distance limits and banned picketing in private neighborhoods.
Right to Associate –
NAACP v. Alabama – state cannot require membership lists of private groups.
Defendant’s Rights - Virtually all have been incorporated and extend to state and federal level.
Search and Seizure: Search warrants require probable cause.
Conditions under which police don’t need a warrant: Probable cause clearly exists, protects an officer’s life and
safety, material relevant to a crime, within a suspect’s immediate control. Can also enter a home if they think
someone is injured or pending injury.
Exclusionary rule – Mapp v. Ohio (1961) extended protections to the states. State or feds cannot use illegally
obtained evidence in court.
Patriot Act ushered in a new era of searches concerning suspected terrorists.
Self Incrimination: 5th amendment
Miranda v. Arizona – 1966 – suspects must be told their rights.
The Right to Counsel
6th amendment guaranteed right to counsel in federal trials.
1963 – Gideon v. Wainwright – extended lawyers to anyone accused of a felony in a state court.
Trials: Federal courts have juries of twelve, require unanimity for conviction, set penalties.
- Habeus Corpus rights = 1st – informed of charges before them.2nd – speedy and public trial.
- Detention of suspected terrorists ushered in new challenges. Feds rounded up hundreds of people and held
them secretly.
Cruel and Unusual Punishment: 8th amendment
1972 – Furman v. Georgia – overturned death penalty laws that are poorly written / administered.
1976 – Gregg v. Georgia – upheld the death penalty
1987 – McClesky v. Kemp – inconsistent application of death penalty does not violate the 14th amendment.
The Right to Privacy:
Implied by free exercise, search and seizure, due process.
1965 - Griswold v. Connecticut – right to privacy; about contraceptives
1973 - Roe v. Wade – allows first trimester abortion, can regulate second term, allowed ban in third trimester.
1992 – Planned Parenthood v. Casey – changed standard from “strict scrutiny” on any restraints to “undue burden”.
Chapter 5 Civil Rights
14th Amendment. – guaranteed “equal protection of the laws”. Equal protection of life, liberty and property for all.
If the law discriminates against a group - three levels of scrutiny:
RACE – inherently suspect – is it necessary to accomplish a governmental purpose and the least restrictive way?
GENDER – Neutral / Medium standard – bears substantial relationship to an important governmental goal?
OTHER (age, wealth) – reasonableness –rational relationship to a legitimate governmental goal?
Race:
1857 – Dred Scott v. Sanford - said black people (not just slaves) had no rights. Slaves were property.
13th Amendment ended slavery.
1896 – Plessy v. Ferguson – established that “separate but equal” is constitutional.
1954 – NAACP won the Brown v. Board case – “Separate is inherently unequal”
1971 – Swann v. Charlotte Mecklenberg Schools – upheld that busing is a remedy to desegregate schools
Civil Rights Act of 1964 – – concerned race, color, national origin, religion, gender.
- Cut off funding to segregated schools, no discrimination in public businesses
- No discrimination in employment. Created the EEOC
- Strengthened voting rights legislation.
Right to Vote:
At first, only white men with property could vote.
Innovations to stop black voting: “Literacy” tests , Grandfather clauses, Poll taxes, White primaries
15th amendment – gave black males the right to vote
1964 – 24th amendment got rid of poll tax in federal elections
Voting Rights Act of 1965 – abolished the literacy test, sent voting registrars, had to get approval for voting changes.
After 1990 census, oddly drawn districts appeared in 6 states.
1993 – Shaw v. Reno – said they had gone too far to create “majority minority” districts.
1996 – Bush v Vera and Shaw v. Hunt – struck down TX and NC maps for convoluted lines
Other minority groups:
Native Americans:
1924 – made citizens who could vote.
Title II of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 – applied Bill of Rights to tribal governments.
Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez (1978) Supreme Court strengthened tribal self government.
Controversies over fishing rights and casinos continues.
Hispanic Americans / Latinos:
United Farm Workers – Cesar Chavez
Benefit from Voting Rights Act, rulings on districting that disadvantage minorities
Asian Americans:
Japanese internment in WWII – upheld by Korematsu v. United States. Later, reparations were paid.
Women, the Constitution and Public Policy
1920 – Nineteenth Amendment have women the right to vote.
1960s – second feminist wave
Feminine Mystique by Betty Freidan questioned status quo
National Organization for Women founded
1971 – Reed v. Reed rules against arbitrary gender based classifications.
1976 – Craig v. Boren ruling established a “medium scrutiny” standard for gender classification
1972 – ERA amendment failed. Stimulated a continuous movement.
Women in the Workplace:
Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned gender discrimination in employment.
Title IX banned gender discrimination in federally subsidized programs, including athletics.
Wage Discrimination and Comparable Worth
Women in the Military- Since 1975 all military academies have accepted women.
Sexual Harassment:
1986 – Court case est. standards: “hostile environment”. Reinforced in 1993 case: Harris v. Forklift Systems
Aging and Civil Rights:
1930s - Social Security est. Set a retirement age of 65 that became mandatory for many.
Compulsory retirement has been phased out – use “rational basis” test for exceptions.
Disabilities:
The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 – defined inaccessibility as a form of discrimination
The Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 – entitled all to an appropriate education
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 – requiring employers to make reasonable accommodations and
prohibiting employment discrimination.
Gay and Lesbian Rights:
2003- Lawrence v. Texas – struck down sodomy laws (overturning 1986 Bower case)
2015- gay marriage was legalized nationwide by the Supreme Court.
Affirmative Action: efforts to bring about increased unemployment, promotion or admission for disadvantaged groups.
1978 – Regents of Univ. of California v. Bakke banned quotas
1995 – Adarand Constructors v. Pena – raised standard for contract set-asides for minority firms to “narrowly tailored”
to accomplish a “compelling governmental interest”
1996 – Proposition 209 passed in California, banning state affirmative action programs. Courts upheld it.
2003 – Grutter v. Bollinger – said race could be a factor in admissions.
2006 – Gratz v. Bollinger – struck down formulas that grant minorities automatic advantage.
Chapter 6
Demographic trends - melting pot to minority majority nation, shift to the Sunbelt, Graying of America
Political Socialization –
Agents: Family, Mass Media, School , Peer groups / opinion leaders
life cycle effect (get more conservative)
Role of polls – exit polling, push polling, key word / phrasing polls
lead the people (trustee model) v. follow the people (instructed delegates, direct democracy)
“paradox of mass politics” – low info voters
Decline in trust of Gov’t. – post 1964
Political Ideology: Conservative , Moderate, Liberal – see table on page 196
Predictors: Age, Race / ethnicity, Gender, religiosity
Types of voters: 12-18% are idealogues, ”groups benefits voters”, “nature of the times”, “no issue content” voters
Participation: Conventional – voting, petition, running for office, Nonconventional – protest, civil disobedience, violence
Higher SES = most likely to vote
Chapter 7:
Mass media = Image creation
- development of technology: 1850 – daily papers, 1920s – radio, 1950s – TV, 2000 – broadband internet
Turning points:
FDR’s fireside chats, 1960 debates: Kennedy v. Nixon
Effect of Watergate and Vietnam
The “rules of engagement” between the press and politicians
Reagan- control info flow + stay on message
Lewinsky scandal, horse race coverage, trend toward negativity
Print Media:
1700s- Zenger trial / 1st Amendment
Late 1800s- Hearst / Pulitzer – yellow journalism
Print media is declining – future unknown
Broadcast Media:
Radio – WWII – news flourished
TV Golden Age – 1950-2000: Nixon’s Checkers speech, 1960s debates, Vietnam / LBJ’s Living Room War
The death of the network news anchor
“Narrowcasting” Cable News
Internet = transforming campaigning
Private Ownership of Media – corporate consolidation
Bias: “odd”over the routine, entertainment over information, liberal bias substantiated by research, urban over rural,
individuals over groups
Beats, Trail balloons and Leaks – symbiotic relationships
War coverage – restriction (WWII) to embedding (modern)
Sound bites
Agenda-setting - Policy Entrepreneurs try to leverage media attention – stunts, press conferences
Watchdog function
Problem Identifiers
Chapter 8 - Political Parties
differ from interest groups – goal is to win elections
Tasks - Pick candidates, run campaigns, articulate policies , coordinate policymaking
The Down Model – Market model /Rational Choice theory – processes and outcomes as purposive behavior
wise party selects policies that are widely favored. Why we have centrist parties.
Party in the Electorate :if you think you are a party member, you are
Party image,Party identification , growing independent category – ticket splitters
Party Organization: hierarchy on paper (nat’l to local) v. reality
Local parties – party machines of past dominated by patronage & ethnicity v. modern databases, targeted canvassing
State Parties: State dependent due to federalism, state election laws shape parties
closed primary, open primary, blanket primary
candidate-centered campaigns
National convention – write platform and nominate candidate
National committee / National chairperson
Platform
History of Parties
1796-1824 - First parties: Rise and fall of Federalists, struggle of National Republicans
1828-1856 – Jacksonian Dems and the Whigs – Campaigning starts,loyal opposition
1860-1896 – Repubs (N. party of “Lincoln” v. Democractic Solid South)
1896 – Big Business Repubs v. Comman Man N. Dems and Elite Southerners
1932-1964 – The New Deal/ Dem. Coalition= urban pple, unions, poor, southerners, African Americans
1968 – present – Southern realignment: Nixon’s southern strategy brings White Southerners to Republican party
Modern dealignment
Third Parties – 3 types: Causes (ex: Prohibition), Splinter (ex: Tea Party), Popular person based (ex: Perot in 1992)
Roles: Safety valve for discontent, Send a message , spoilers in elections
winner take all system = two party system
Responsible Party Model – depends on party cohesion - decentralized nature of US parties make cohesion very hard.
Effects of the lack of cohesion: scope of government action is more limited, hard to reign in spending.
Chapter 9 – Nominations and Campaigns
Rigors of campaigning - vetting, length, expense
Nomination Process – requires money, media, momentum, and a campaign strategy
Caucuses v. primary systems
McGovern – Fraser Commission recommended primaries and open delegate selection procedures.
Democrats only: set aside 15% for “superdelegates”, requires some level of proportional share of delegates
frontloading
Critics of the system: disproportionate attention to early contests, voter participation is low (5% in caucus states)
Conventions: reward and energizer for the party faithful.
Day 1: “keynote” address, Day 2: develop platform, Day 3: nominate, Day 4 candidate speech
Campaigns – now a mix of art and science
Goal of media – get attention.
1 way –advertising - more likely than the news to tell positions
2nd way – media coverage - more likely to be “horse race” coverage, human interest
Organizing a campaign – get a staff
Costs of campaigns skyrocket with TV, and Watergate exposes illegal contributions
1974 reform law – Federal Election Campaign Act
- tightened reporting requirements
- limited overall expenditures
- created Federal Election Commission – bipartisan 6 member administers and enforces
- created the presidential election campaign fund
- partial public financing for presidential primaries / matching funds.Not used today generally.
- Requires full disclosure – file reports saying who contributed and how the money was spent.
- Limits contributions
Buckley v. Valeo (1976) – struck down limits on funding your own campaign
1979 – amended the law to allow for “soft money” - for voter drives and generic advertising
2002- McCain Feingold law – also BCRA Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act – (1) made soft money “hard” by
requiring reporting (2) increased indiv. donations and indexed to inflation. (3) barred groups from running issue ads
within 60 days of an election if they are using unregulated money.
“Hydraulic theory of money and politics” – money will find a new way. Ex: 2004 – 527 groups form
June 2007 - Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc., that BCRA's limitations on corporate and
labor union funding of broadcast ads unconstitutional
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, says corporations have 1st amendment rights. Allowed issue ads
paid for by corporations in the 30 days before a presidential primary and in the 60 days before the general election.
PACs 1974 laws tried to bring corporate money out into the open by allowing them to form PACs.
Must report to the FEC.
PAC $ has more influence on Congressional races than Presidents
more spending by incumbents = closer races and more losses.
Doctrine of sufficiency– you don’t need to outspend your opponent, but you need enough to get a message out
Impact of Campaigns
Three effects: more reinforcement, activation than conversion
Why? selective perception., party identification overrides, incumbency advantage
Hyperdemocracy
Chapter 10: Elections and Voting Behavior
3 types of elections: general election contested between nominees, primary elections
policy elections - only state level - referendums and initiatives.
History:
Founding: no campaigns, state legislators chose electors
12th amendment = joint ticket for Pres. and VP
1828 – campaigns begin with Jackson presidency
1896 – William McKinley v. William Jennings Bryan: big money v. Populisn
2000 – “hanging chads” - Supreme Court decision Bush v. Gore stopped recount, Bush declared winner
Development of the Right to Vote
1800 – only white males with property over age 21
today – all people over age 18 except some criminals and noncitizens
Suffrage is expanding but turnout is declining: 1896 – 80% of adult pop voted, 2004 – 55% of adult pop voted
What motivates people to vote? rational policy voters, sense of political efficacy, sense of civic duty.
Why apathy? electoral college winner take all system, lack of radical parties, Tuesday workday voting, primaries and
general elections = overload
Registering to Vote: Progressive reform = voter registration, ensures voting is more fair, is an impediment to voting.
States differ widely on registration – none v. same day registration v. advance registration
1993 Motor Voter Bill was signed by Bill Clinton.
Factors that influence voting:
Raise voting: education , high income, age , female, married, government worker
Race / ethnicity = whites more likely to vote in general population, but more a function of class than race.
Politicians like the “mandate theory of elections”
3 things shape voting:
(1) Party Identification – of declining) but stable influence.
(2) Candidate Evaluations – integrity, reliability (no flip floppers), competence (this favors the incumbent)
(3) Policy Voting – when voters know their positions , where the candidate stands , are differences between the candidates
Primaries have forced candidates to take more clear policy positions
The Electoral College
Est. in Constitution, unique to the US.
Each state would decide how to choose electors.
Except for Nebraska and Maine, it’s a winner take all system.
Now electors are party leaders / faithful, it is very unlikely they would change their vote.
Contingencies:
If no one gets an electoral majority (270), election goes to the HOR & they choose among the top 3.
EACH STATE DELEGATION ONLY GETS ONE VOTE
Two effects – it pays to campaign more in small states , focus only on “swing states”
When elections shape policy:
The greater the policy differences between candidates, the more likely voters can steer government.
When policies affect elections:
“Theory of retrospective voting” - what have you done for me lately?
Most common factor: the economy
Chapter 11: Interest Groups
Election turnout has been low since 1960, but interest groups have mushroomed.
Interest Groups = people with similar policy goals that enter the political process to try and achieve those aims.
in every area of government – local to federal, law to implementation to judicial review.
policy specialists
Pluralist Theory - the Madisonian model – there are lots, so all compete, no one group is likely to become too dominant
Elite Theory (Liberal Critique - ) Real power is held by a few people with money and connections.
Hyperpluralism (Conservative Critique) – government’s excessive deference to groups = agencies proliferate, regulations
expand, programs multiply, budgets expand. Advanced by subgovernment iron triangles.
Olson’s Law of Large Groups – the larger the group, the further it will fall short
Large Groups Can be Ineffective due to collective goods and free-riders.
Small groups are likely to spread gains over a smaller number of people –incentive advantage.
single-issue groups – narrow interest, dislikes compromise, single-minded.
How Groups Try and Shape Policy – four strategies
Lobbying – in house v. contract. Provide info, advise on political strategy & campaign strategy, sources of ideas
They function more to activate and reinforce than covert.
Electioneering - funnel money into PACS, mainly incumbents, recruit candidates, issue endorsements, provide
volunteers, send delegates to state and party conventions.
Litigation - File amicus curiae briefs – friend of the court, file class action lawsuits.
Public Appeal - PR campaigns to improve image, motivate public, “inform” public / spin
Types of Interest Groups
Economic – regulations, taxes, subsidies, contracts, trade policy
Labor - want higher wages and better working conditions
Closed shop v. right to work laws (they were enabled by the Taft Hartley Act)
Business – Largest growing segment of PACs
prefer the Republicans and deregulatory and tax cutting.
Seek subsidies, contracts, split on tariffs / immigration
Environmental Interests
Audobon and Sierra Club since the 1800s, rest since Earth Day 1970
- support pollution control, wilderness protection, pop control, solar / wind power
- oppose expanding drilling, nuclear power, strip mining, fracking,
Equality Interests
Empowered by the 14th amendment
Blacks = NAACP –gov’t contracts, Voting Rights, police brutality, jobs, education
Women = suffrage, NOW, ERA failed, abortion
Consumers and Public Interest Lobbies
Seek a collective good that will not selectively or materially benefit the membership
Ralph Nader, Consumer Protection Agency Est.
Also includes religious and good government groups.