Exploring educational and socio-economic effects of early marriage: A grounded theory study
of the cultural practice of semi-nomadic pastoralist cultures in rural Tanzania.
JanvierRugira, M.A Psychology
Mt. Meru University, Tanzania
Julius Kipuyo
Founding Director of
Early Marriage Tragedy in Maasai Society Foundation
Monduli, Tanzania
Abstract
This study was approached for a grounded theory perspective in order to explore the
perceptions of semi-nomadic pastoralists whoself-identified as having the characteristics of the
most vulnerable and were educationally successful. This study identified motivating factors that
contribute to the practice of early marriage among the maasai’s of Tanzania and their effects on
girl-child while pursuing education. Findings suggest that even though there existing cultural
values attached to the practice, the community progressively embraces the value of education.
Recommendations in improving the girl-child right would need to include education against
witchcraft, and sensitization from the grass root.
Key Words: Pastoralists, early marriage, girl-child, Education, Resiliency, Grounded Theory,
Tanzania.
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Introduction
Child marriage, defined as marriage before age 18, devastates the lives of girls, their
families and their communities. The Unicef, reports that child brides number more than 60
million worldwide with the highest prevalence in developing countries. In some countries, half
of the girls are married before they turn 18 (UNICEF).
This harmful traditional practice of child marriage is most common in poor, rural communities,
and its consequences only perpetuate the cycle of poverty and violation of the girl-child rights.
More often than not, child brides are pulled out of school, depriving them of an education and
meaningful work. They suffer health risks associated with early sexual activity and childbearing,
leading to high rates of maternal and child mortality as well as sexually transmitted infections,
including HIV. And they are more likely to be victims of domestic violence, sexual abuse and
social isolation.
Pastoralists in East Africa have many different mother tongues. Their cultures are unique having
developed independently for many generations. These are proud people. When some
outsiders speak of education for rural tribes they convey the impression that this civilizing
influence will make them better people. In addition, education is seen by some as a threat to
traditional culture. Globalization rears its ugly head once again while another beautiful native
culture is destroyed. The history of this region repeatedly speaks of domination by
industrialized states and the use of education to both improve lives as well as train a labor force
for exploitation. In spite of this, others see education as a means of moving toward a better life,
an improved life. They see it as a natural extension of a progressive people, necessary to
maintain a desirable place in this world.
General barriers to education
While the free basic education policy was a positive step towards provision of universal,
compulsory education, it has not removed all barriers to basic education (Keiper and Rugira
2011). In East Africa, one of the greater barriers is the requirementof school fees, which severely
restrict the ability of families and caregivers to enable children to go to school (Catholic World
Relief and USAID, 2008). Happily, a trend seen in recent years has been for countries to abolish
primary school fees, and this has led to dramatic increases in enrollment. For example, in
Uganda, the abolition of fees in 1996 led to a 70 per cent increase in enrollments. In the United
Republic of Tanzania, where fees were abolished in 2001, the response was even greater, with
the net primary enrollment rate soaring from 57 per cent to 85 per cent within one year. Fees
for uniforms and secondary schools still pose a significant financial burden to those in poverty
and few have access to books or supplies.
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Challenges of pastoralist education of the girl-child
In additional to the traditional reluctance of pastoralists of sending their children to school, the
education of girls in those communities has additional challenges (Vavrus, 2002). In her
situational analysis of pastoralism in Simanjiro District, for example, Muir (1994) found that
more boys than girls were attending school for various reasonsincluding the general thinking
that while "a boy returns the investment to the home, a girl is expected to leave home to marry
and to bring in bridewealth" (p. 21). Worse still, a girl is expected to be married and be a
homemaker than a professional.
As Keiper and Rugira (2011) state, places for the children of pastoralists to attend school are
seriously limited especially at the secondary level. The distance makes it even more difficult for
girls given the family demands and the fact that they are prone to violence. Kasunga (1994), is
argues that there is very little pressure exerted for women’s education and a general negative
attitude of the community towards schooling as whole. If the latter is added to long walking
distances which must be covered to and from school, attendance of school of the girl child
becomes even low.
In the presence of these challenges, it is reportedly that the girl-child is generally weak in
academic matters and that she would fit best in homemaking. It is worth noting that Muir (1994)
observed that the general performance of pastoralists’ schools is low compared to those of
other communities in Tanzania. The poor performance being largely attributed to the lack of
educational resources, poorly trained teachers, and content of education which is unrelated,
and often conflicting, with the problems, needs, and aspirations of the people emanating from
economic, social, cultural and environmental realities.
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Methods
It was decided to use in-depth interviewing as the main method to collect data for the
study since an interpretative approach (qualitative in nature) was adopted for the investigation.
The central concern of the interpretative research is that of understanding human experiences
at a holistic level.
A snowball sampling (nonprobability-sampling technique) was chosen in order to reach opinion
leaders in the area of customs. The final sample of respondents was made up of community
elders both males and females represented. Four males elders and three
Findings
Causes of early marriage
As revealed by our informants, early marriage is motivated by several reasons which may be
viewed from the whole socio-economic spectra among the maasai community. 100% of the
respondents associated child marriage with the need of accumulation of wealth in the poor
bomas where parents of the girl may opt to receive a bride price to meet some needs. While the
bride price may be received to enable to parents of the girl be in a position to pay the bride
price for a son wanting to marry, the bride price may also be received for parents to get
additional cows. Note that cows are reported to be everything. Cattle are a sign of great wealth
among the Maasai (Priest 1990). Closely connected with wealth is the need of social acceptance
in the community where having in laws is something of great value i.e the social value raises.
It was further reported that gender biasness is part of the things promoting early marriage of
girls whereby the value of attached to girls in that of being married. In this perspective, the
respondent (60%) reported that some families may experience some form of pressure from
older community leaders arguing them to ensure that their children are married early enough to
preserve the tradition which is closely connected to the notion that early pregnancy leads to
larger families and hence providing for heirs to the throne.
Some communities regard their girl children as a burden and think of getting rid of them by
marrying them off early in a patriarchal society. Some reported instances are those of parents
fearing to take the cost of education, fear of early pregnancies and other costs related to rising
up a child. It is in this context that some parents opt at sending off the girl-child as early as nine
years for the in-laws to grow her up themselves. Connected to these are myths and
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misconceptions about early marriage; as noted later in this paper, the whole arrangement for
marriage is done by parents believing that they are making the best choice for their children.
The Practice of early marriage among the maasai
Child marriage in maasai society may start as early as the family wishes. It can start even before
birth of the prospective wife. The marriage of a girl is arranged by her parents and her suitor's
parents, many times years in advance. Often the bride price is large enough to require kinsmen
to help the groom in making the payment. This is especially common among pastoralists
societies, such as the cattle herders of East Africa who have traditionally paid bride price with
cows. Among tribes like the Nuer, Turkana, and Masai, borrowing to make up the agreed upon
bride price puts the groom in debt to his older male relatives for many years. The bride's father
usually disburses the payment in turn as bride price for his sons and nephews. As a result, the
community's wealth is circulated.
Masai mother and child
Among these tribes, the bride's family has a strong economic interest in keeping her marriage
together because a divorce would require the return of the bride price, which often has already
been given away to relatives. If there are children, however, the bride price usually does not
have to be returned, but they belong to the groom's family. He keeps the children instead of
the bride price. In a sense, the bride price becomes a payment for children and, therefore, has
also been referred to as "progeny price".
Stage one: Introduction
The introduction of the family as to whom do the bride belong; after they bring together four
alcohol tin has to be taken to the bride family. They call this a welcome of the groom (kimasai
name), to be one of the member in the family. After this follows six tins and one female then
later allows the two families to sit together and discuss on what the groom want did.
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Stage two: Payment of the bride price
The groom had to pay a female cow, which is called the building cow (kimasai name). This
means the productive member from the bride family is going to move, so there will be no more
construction at home but this female cow will sit on behalf of the bride. Also the ox has to be
paid to the father in-law of the bride family; this ox is paid as why the one to give a name to the
father in-law as one cannot call the name of the father in-law without giving something. Another
cow to be paid is a big ox for food (meat); this is paid because he minimizes the productive
people. Then the groom has after to tell the father in-law that he wants to circumcise the girl
(FGM).You have to take sugar daily without considering the numbers of days you have attended,
this is apart the bride price.
This process is done purposely because it is the last process for the groom to send off the girl. So
he has also to pay another cow which is the cow of feeding the girl after her female genital
mutilation, because the party cares among is going to be there for the girl circumcision, the
groom had to bring two oxen at a time, one is for drinks and another one is for meat. However,
within the ceremony or after you have to pay again the female cow that will be called for the
name “a girl”. This just stays at home for the mother to milk it. One she goat had to be paid to
the bride family the case of last engagement to the girl, it should be done in the bride family
which there is no any woman in the bomas/home, because whoever you did it, it is bad as they
say you have to pay the women who are there at the day of engagement moreover the female
sheep had to be paid purposely because you have to feel the clan as well as the tribe, this is like
the sacrifice. The cooked ribs and ten litters of a flesh oil cooked have to be taken to the father
in-law but the ribs belongs the bride’s mother and the oil belongs to the father. Two male goats
the small and the big should also be paid. To some parts the groom should build the buildings to
the mothers of the brides. After that the preparation for sendoff to begin.
Stage 3: Send off
The girl child can be taken to the in-laws on early as 9 years to be grown there, but before that
some payment should done first, the big blanket of the father in-laws should be paid at last the
female donkey carrying the luggage of calabashes should be paid to the bride’s mother, this
female donkey act as the taken girl on fetching water to the mother as well as doing many other
activities. Within the sendoff day the bride has to be decorated, she has to carry the calabash in
which the calabash means the expected child, that the calabash prophecies the girl to have the
baby. Before some days of the sendoff the boy has right to sleep and have sex with a girl which
she is still at her parents’ home.
Harmful effects of early marriage
Respondents from all the categories indicated some understanding that early marriage can
cause severe problems not only to the girl-child but also to the general welfare of the
community. Harmful effects that were reported included largely denial of freedom and personal
development (including education) as household chores now become a priority. Next to that is
domestic violence resulting in forms of harsh biting and sometimes dying of a girl without the
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parents know. Respondents (54%) stressed that the girl has no right to come back to her parents
when she gets married, it is the husband to decide to allow or not.
Conclusions and Considerations
It was our privilege to be able to sit for many hours, listening to the stories of several opinion
leaders in the maasai community who have either gone through early marriage and are now
advocating for the abolition of the same. Some stories we could hardly bear to hear because of
the pain described especially how early marriage puts an end on the road to formal education.
With other stories we could hardly contain our excitement because of the amazing bravery and
exotic adventure of the girl-child not wanting to be halted by the customs
We will work to continue describing and analyzing cultural practices that hinder the girl-child
from accessing formal education and enjoy life to the fullness in part because we have heard
these stories and looked into the eyes of those who participated in this study. In some way, we
are hopeful this will help more girl-children from similar backgrounds access formal education
successfully.
Though child marriage is entrenched in tradition and culture, change is possible. Very often, girls
and their parents want to delay marriage but lack options. Governments and communities need
to actively keep on working to discourage the practice by raising awareness of the adverse
consequences for girls, running programs that provide girls with viable alternatives to marriage,
and demanding more effective enforcement of existing laws that condemn child marriage. With
the right mix of effective programs, policies and political will, millions of girls will have the
opportunity to fulfill their potential.
Recommendations
Address Cultural and traditional values and norms
The study findings indicate that cultural and traditional values and norms are important
determinants of early marriage. As child marriage is a tradition that has been maintained
through generations, sometimes parents may be unaware of the dangers, or may feel that the
dangers are justified for cultural or economic reasons. Even where parents and children
Understand the negative implications of early marriage, societal pressure to conform may be
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great. Traditions promoting early marriage need to be challenged.
Empower the youth (building the capacity of youth associations) by providing them with
information and knowledge they can use to convince family and community members that
early marriage has a negative effect on all of them, and create sensitization forums for
community leaders such as woreda council members, kebele and women and youth
association members.
Focus should be made on forming and strengthening anti-Harmful Traditional Practice clubs
in schools, as they have proven to be very effective and efficient in fighting against the
practice. Schools are basic stakeholders in early marriage issues, since they are the first
institutions to be affected by the practice.
Efforts must be made to convince community leaders of the importance of girl’s education by
stressing its positive impact at the household level - especially on the well being of mothers,
children, and the family.
Community-based organizations and community-support organizations (such as religious
institutions and associations, idir, and any other local civic organizations), and schools are
the best channels for raising awareness about the negative impacts of early marriage. Indeed,
they have played a major role in recent efforts to reduce the practice, because people tend to
listen more to something that comes through these channels. Community-based and
community-support organizations should continue to serve as the means to raise awareness
about the negative impacts of the practice.
Provide additional training to Health Extension Workers and Community-Based
Reproductive Health Agents to enhance their knowledge and teaching on consequences of
early marriage and existing laws and policies, so that they can raise the awareness of
community members in these areas.
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Law enforcement
A more rigorous enforcement of existing laws and policies is required to discourage early
marriage. Allow anonymous reporting, work with the police and others, and make it clear
that early marriage is a major violation of the rights of children.
Check and monitor the extent to which courts are implementing the existing relevant laws
regularly. Despite the laws, most parents do not feel threatened by government intervention if
they marry their daughters at a young age. But in some areas, recent reductions in the
practice of early marriage are attributed to strong measures taken by law enforcement (the
police and courts). Hence, it is important that the initiatives and commitments manifested in
this area are maintained and further enhanced.
Strengthen law enforcement bodies to enable them to effectively discharge their duties and
responsibilities, with due attention to the implementation of the family law and respect for
children’s rights.
Create options to early marriage: Education
The findings of the study show that early marriage is the major cause for girls not to attend
school or discontinue their education. However, advising parents to send their daughters to
school when schools are too far will not work. Making schooling for girls more accessible is
very important.
Support Partners against early marriage
Those elements of communities that oppose early marriage, such as women’s organizations,
need support to ensure that they have the capacity to act effectively as advocates against it.
Work jointly with religious, health, and educational leaders to develop an information and
education strategy about the negative effects (social, economical, health, etc) of early
marriage.
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