RM3 Laurea magistrale AA 2011/12 Prof. M. Boyd Handout #6a LANGUAGE OF POLITICS: An introduction Some important questions: WHAT IS POLITICAL DISCOURSE? “[It is] concerned with formal/informal political contexts and political actors… with politicians, political institutions, governments, political media, and political supporters operating in political environments to achieve political goals” [Wilson 2001: 398]. It refers to “the use of language to do the business of politics and includes persuasive rhetoric, the use of implied meaning, the use of euphemisms, the exclusion of references to undesirable realities, the use of language to rouse political emotions, and the like” [Chilton 2008: 226] WHAT ARE POLITICAL TEXTS? They are texts that fulfil political functions, and they include a number of different genres, such as: o bilateral and multilateral treaties, o speeches made during an election campaign or at a political party congress, o a contribution of a member an MP or congressman to a debate, editorial, reports or commentaries in newspapers, o a press conference, o a politician’s memoirs o others include: slogans, advertisements, leaflets used in electoral campaigns, home pages and blogs, special TV and radio programmes (Meet the Press, BBC Parliament), fictional films and TV shows about politics or political actors (JFK, The West Wing) WHAT EXACTLY ARE GENRES AND WHY ARE THEY SO IMPORTANT IN POLITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS? According to Fairclough: genres are conventional ways of (inter)acting linguistically, which are distinguished by genre-specific linguistic forms and/or structures and are closely linked to specific social and institutional contexts they are embedded in. Genres are distinguished by typical combinations of contextual (situational), communicative-functional, and structural (grammatical and thematic features. In the analysis of political discourse it is important to understand “the role which particular genres play in the exercise of power and influence, and in part their role in the very definition of politics and political institutions.” [Chilton & Schäffner 2002: 20-21] (See the explanation of CDA) HOW ARE POLITICAL TEXTS INFLUENCED BY THE LARGER CONTEXT? Political texts are the result of “politics” because they are defined by history and culture. They perform different functions on the basis of different political actions and related to the political world (e.g., political activities, political ideas, political relations, etc.). These texts are almost always meant for a wider public and each political text is embedded in a wider political discourse (INTERTEXTUALITY) to various extents, so that they can display different degrees of CULTUREBOUNDEDNESS. For translation purposes, it is important to remember that, on the one hand, texts can reflect in a specific way the social context and the historic period of their production (e.g., policy statements of a particular government). On the other hand, there are multilingual but equally authoritative texts (such as documents from the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe [CSCE], UN, EU) which reflect specific production conditions and internationalization process. [Schäffner 1997] WHY IS CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS SO INTERESTED IN POLITICAL DISCOURSE? CDA is particularly focused on ideology, power, dominance, and social and institutional practice which are all important factors in political discourse. RM3 Laurea magistrale AA 2011/12 “Political differences have been constituted as differences in language, [and] political struggles have always been partly struggles over the dominant language” [Fairclough 2000: 3]. The way people talk about themselves and others, both positively and negatively, reflect deeply ingrained power relations, and the texts they produce can serve to sustain or change ideologies [Fairclough 2003: 9]. Ideology “can help produce and reproduce unequal power relations between … social classes, women and men, and ethnic/cultural majorities and minorities through the ways in which they represent things and position people” [Fairclough and Wodak 1997: 258]. Some Important Features of Political Language 1. 2. 3. 4. use of euphemism or euphemizing strategies a. to soften or change perception of reality; b. to legitimise or delegitimize someone or something a particular ideology (or indexicality) can be expressed through lexical choice, accent, forms of address, etc.) which always signal some political distinction metaphorical reasoning is common in political discourse (as is the use of other rhetorical tropes such as metonymy and synecdoche) a. for example, in the so-called war on terrorism “the meaning of terrorism depends on who you are and what your political ideology is, and include the meaning that makes it possible to use “terrorist” to refer to states as well as to sub-state actors” [Chilton 2008: 237] most political texts are highly culture-bound: “with references to a wide range of cultural patterns of the society in question, including aspects of its economic, political and legal life, require a lot of background knowledge for a coherent interpretation.” [Schäffner 1997: 133] a. many political texts make use of intertextuality b. in analyzing any speech event it is important to consider four different levels of context [Wodak 2009: 586]: i. the immediate text-internal co-text; ii. the intertextual and interdiscursive relationship between texts, genres and discourses; Prof. M. Boyd Handout #6a iii. extralinguistic social/sociological variables and institutional frames of a specific ‘context of situation’; iv. the broader sociopolitical and historical contexts, which the discursive practices are embedded in and related to. 5. use of formulaic utterances or institutionalized procedures (e.g., I beg to move…) in specific situations (Parliamentary discussions, speeches, question & answer sessions, debates, etc.) 6. modal forms are used strategically by politicians to remain vague, or frame claims for truth, confidence, trust, credibility and legitimization. 7. use of informal language to change the tone or to stress the manner (such as an apparent closer relation between speaker and public) 8. prominent use of pronouns to reflect personal and ideological points of view (creating closeness, distance, a sense of responsibility, group identity, coalitions, parties, etc.) a. pronouns can indicate (or obscure) collectivity and individuality, or they can be used for (positive) ‘self’ or (negative) ‘other’ referencing or as a way to polarize representations of in-groups and out groups. b. Most important pronominal distinctions are I vs. we, inclusive vs. exclusive-we, and us vs. them. The use of I/we is clearly marked depending on how much responsibility the speaker wants to claim: I is used “to gain the people’s allegiance”, while we is often used to evade complete responsibility (Wilson 1990: 50). Third-person pronouns can be used for distance, a relation of contrast and other referencing from the so-called ‘deictic centre’. 9. the naming of politicians or other social actors by linguistic means (nomination) 10. the framing of questions to stress the availability of alternative models (in a democracy) 11. repetition and other rhetorical means to reinforce a message *REQUIRED READING: Wodak, R. 2009. “Language and Politics”. In Culpeper et al. English Language: Description, Variation and Context. London: Palgrave. 576593. RM3 Laurea magistrale AA 2011/12 Prof. M. Boyd Handout #6a Comment on the use of the underlined items in the two examples (from GW Bush) Example 1*: GW Bush’s Address after 9/11 Attacks [from Cabinet Room following Cabinet Meeting, 12 September 2001] I just completed a meeting with our national security team, forever. This enemy attacked not just our people but all and we've received the latest intelligence updates. The freedom-loving people everywhere in the world. deliberate and deadly attacks, which were carried out yesterday against our country, were more than acts of terror. The United States of America will use all our resources to They were acts of war. This will require our country to unite conquer this enemy. We will rally the world. We will be in steadfast determination and resolve. Freedom and patient. We'll be focused, and we will be steadfast in our democracy are under attack. The American people need to determination. This battle will take time and resolve, but make know we're facing a different enemy than we have ever no mistake about it, we will win. The federal government and faced. This enemy hides in shadows and has no regard for all our agencies are conducting business, but it is not human life. This is an enemy who preys on innocent and business as usual. We are operating on heightened security unsuspecting people, then runs for cover, but it won't be alert. America is going forward, and as we do so, we must able to run for cover forever. This is an enemy that tries to remain keenly aware of the threats to our country. hide, but it won't be able to hide forever. This is an enemy that thinks its harbors are safe, but they won't be safe *Example from Wodak 2009: 584 and http://www.americanrhetoric.com/ RM3 Laurea magistrale AA 2011/12 Prof. M. Boyd Handout #6a Example 2: GW Bush on Saddam Hussein’s Capture [delivered on 14 December 2003 from the Cabinet Room] Good afternoon. Yesterday, December the 13th, at around 8:30 p.m. Baghdad time, United States military forces captured Saddam Hussein alive. He was found near a farmhouse outside the city of Tikrit, in a swift raid conducted without casualties. And now the former dictator of Iraq will face the justice he denied to millions. The capture of this man was crucial to the rise of a free Iraq. It marks the end of the road for him, and for all who bullied and killed in his name. For the Baathist holdouts largely responsible for the current violence, there will be no return to the corrupt power and privilege they once held. For the vast majority of Iraqi citizens who wish to live as free men and women, this event brings further assurance that the torture chambers and the secret police are gone forever. And this afternoon, I have a message for the Iraqi people: You will not have to fear the rule of Saddam Hussein ever again. All Iraqis who take the side of freedom have taken the winning side. The goals of our coalition are the same as your goals -sovereignty for your country, dignity for your great culture, and for every Iraqi citizen, the opportunity for a better life. In the history of Iraq, a dark and painful era is over. A hopeful day has arrived. All Iraqis can now come together and reject violence and build a new Iraq. The success of yesterday's mission is a tribute to our men and women now serving in Iraq. The operation was based on the superb work of intelligence analysts who found the dictator's footprints in a vast country. The operation was carried out with skill and precision by a brave fighting force. Our servicemen and women and our coalition allies have faced many dangers in the hunt for members of the fallen regime, and in their effort to bring hope and freedom to the Iraqi people. Their work continues, and so do the risks. Today, on behalf of the nation, I thank the members of our Armed Forces and I congratulate 'em. I also have a message for all Americans: The capture of Saddam Hussein does not mean the end of violence in Iraq. We still face terrorists who would rather go on killing the innocent than accept the rise of liberty in the heart of the Middle East. Such men are a direct threat to the American people, and they will be defeated. We've come to this moment through patience and resolve and focused action. And that is our strategy moving forward. The war on terror is a different kind of war, waged capture by capture, cell by cell, and victory by victory. Our security is assured by our perseverance and by our sure belief in the success of liberty. And the United States of America will not relent until this war is won. May God bless the people of Iraq, and may God bless America. Thank you.