Neurology department
Academic Half day
Emergency Lecture series
Iatrogenic neurology
Mohammed Alkuwaiti
R3
Content:
• Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
• Serotonin syndrome
• Acute dystonic reaction
• Chemotherapy induced neuropathy
Case 1:
•
“Ms. A,” a 25-year-old woman with paranoid schizophrenia, presented with an acute
psychotic episode after having stopped taking her medication.
•
Over a 10-hour period in the ER she received two IM injections of haloperidol (5 mg
each) and required intermittent physical restraint for safety. Her prior regimen of
10 mg/day of oral haloperidol and 1 mg/day of benztropine was resumed.
•
The following morning, Ms. A was noted to be diaphoretic and in moderate distress.
Vitals: HR 140 bpm, Bp 145/92 mmHg, RR 26 bpm, and Temp 40.2 °C (rectal).
Physical examination demonstrated generalized rigidity and tremulousness in all
extremities, and her mental status was consistent with delirium.
•
Laboratory studies were remarkable for a WBC of 15,000 cells/ml and a CK 45,050
IU. Elevated serum transaminases. Normal electrolytes and creatinine. Urine
toxicology screen was negative.
•
CSF: normal, and cultures of blood and urine were negative. A CXR was normal.
•
EEG: diffuse, generalized slowing, and CT revealed no acute intracranial pathology.
Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
Def:
– Is a life threatening neurologic emergency associated with
the use of neuroleptic agents.
• Fever, Rigidity, Mental status changes, dysautonomia.
Epi:
• Incidence rates
– 0.02 to 3 % PTs on neuroleptic agents
– Mostly Young adults (age range 0.9 to 78 yrs)
– M : F 2:1
Associated medications
•
Neuroleptic agents
– Often "typical” agents (Potency High > Low)
• Including chlorpromazine, fluphenazine, haloperidol,
paliperidone, perphenazine, and thioridazine.
– ”Atypical" agents (less common)
• Include aripiprazole, clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine,
risperidone, and ziprasidone.
– Antiemetic drugs (eg, domperidone, metoclopramide, promethazine,
prochlorperazine)
– Usually develop during the first two weeks of neuroleptic therapy
• Wider range (After a single dose to many yrs of therapy)
It is not a dose-dependent phenomenon, but higher doses are a risk
factor.
Associated risk factors
•
Pharmacological Risks factors:
• Recent or rapid dose escalation,
• Switch from one agent to another
• parenteral administration, depot formulations
• Concomitant use of Lithium
•
–
Environmental
Elevated temperature has been proposed as contributing factor.
•
–
Clinical risk factors
Over representative of certain psychiatric conditions
• e.g acute catatonia, and extreme agitation., restraints
Comorbid acute medical illness (infection, trauma, surgery)
comorbid substance abuse.
Dehydration in 92% (? Casue vs effect)
–
–
–
Antiparkinson medication
withdrawal
• L-Dopa or dopamine agonist therapy,
• Withdrawal or reduction or switching agents
• Infection and surgery are possible precipitants as well.
Unrelated to changes in treatment or altered levodopa kinetics.
• This may be considered a distinctive disorder
– Neuroleptic malignant-like syndrome.
– Usually milder form
Familial predisposition
The human dopamine D2 receptor gene (DRD2)
• - A TaqI A restriction fragment polymorphism containing A1
and A2 alleles.
Patients with one or two A1 alleles:
- Lower dopamine D2 receptor density
- Diminished dopaminergic activity and glucose metabolism in
brain regions abundant with dopamine receptors.
PATHOGENESIS —
– The cause of NMS is unknown.
– Current theories are limited in their ability to explain all clinical
manifestations.
Main:
– Dopamine receptor blockade is central to most theories.
• several lines of evidence:
– Withdrawal of dopaminergic drugs can precipitate an NMSlike syndrome;
– Most drugs associated with NMS produce dopamine
receptor blockade;
– The risk of NMS appears to be correlated with the
dopamine- receptor-binding affinity of drugs;
– Dopaminergic drugs have been used in treatment of NMS
symptoms;
Clinical Manifestations
•
•
Typical symptoms —
The tetrad of NMS symptoms typically evolves over one to three days.
– Mental status change: 1st in 82%. “Agitated delirium with confusion”.
• Catatonic signs and mutism can be prominent.
• Evolution to profound encephalopathy with stupor and eventual coma is typical.
– Muscular rigidity is generalized. "lead pipe rigidity” +/- cogwheel phenomenon.
• Other motor abnormalities include “Dyskinesias” e.g tremors, dystonia,
opisthotonus, trismus.
• Patients can also have prominent sialorrhea, dysarthria, and dysphagia.
– Hyperthermia is a defining symptom according to many diagnostic criteria. Temp
of >38ºC is typical (87 percent), but temp, >40ºC, is common.
– Autonomic instability:
• tachycardia (in 88 percent),
• labile or high blood pressure (in 61 to 77 percent),
• Tachypnea (in 73 percent)
• Diaphoresis, often profuse.
DSM IV dx criteria
Laboratory abnormalities
•
Elevated serum CK — due to rigidity
– Typically >1000 IU/L, may reach >100,000 IU/L.
– Normal CK can be seen if rigidity is not clearly well developed.
Other laboratory findings are non-specific
• Leukocytosis: WBC typically 10,000 to 40,000/mm3. +/- left shift.
• LDH & LFTs mild elevation
• Electrolyte abnormalities:
– hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia, hypo and hypernatremia, hyperkalemia, and
metabolic acidosis.
•
Myoglobinuric acute renal failure can result from rhabdomyolysis.
•
A low serum iron concentration (mean 5.71 µmol/L; normal 11 to 32 µmol/L) is
commonly seen in NMS patients and is a sensitive (92 to 100 percent) but not
specific marker for NMS among acutely ill psychiatric patients
•
•
•
CSF: Normal in > 95% of cases, rarely nonspecific elevation in protein
Imaging: normal
EEG: may demonstrate generalized slowing consistent with metabolic
encephalopathy.
Diagnosis of Exclusion
•
•
Central, systemic, and toxic
causes of hyperthermia and
rigidity must be excluded,
as well as other causes of
rhabdomyolysis and altered
mental status.
•
Serotonin syndrome — usually caused by use of SSRIs and has a similar
presentation to NMS. Distinguishable features:
– Shivering, hyperreflexia, myoclonus, and ataxia
– Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.
– Milder rigidity and hyperthermia.
•
Malignant hyperthermia — A rare genetic disorder. Occurring with use of
potent halogenated inhalational anesthetic agents and succinylcholine.
Distinguished features:
– clinical setting
– more fulminant.
– NMS patients more susceptible to it.
– MH is caused by a genetic defect in a sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium channel protein,
which results in excessive calcium release into skeletal muscle after exposure to
triggering medications.
•
Malignant catatonia — usually a behavioral prodrome of weeks that is
characterized by psychosis, agitation, and catatonic excitement. Laboratory
values are more typically normal. Difficult to distinguish.
•
Other drug-related syndromes —
–
–
Withdrawal of intrathecal baclofen therapy has been associated with an NMS-like syndrome in
several case reports .
Acute intoxication with certain recreational drugs, especially cocaine and ecstasy (3,4methylenedioxymethamphetamine, MDMA), can be confused with NMS.
Treatment and Management
• Stop causative agent
• Supportive care
– ABC
– Rehydration
• Insensible fluid loss
• Washout CK
– Correction of electrolytes + metabolic abn. (bicarb loading)
– Cooling blankets (gastric lavage, ice packs, Tylenol, ASA)
– Lowering the Bp
– DVT Prophylaxis
Medical treatment
Based mostly upon case reports and clinical experience
Their efficacy is unclear:
• Benzodiazepines: ameliorate agitation
– A trial of lorazepam 1 to 2 mg parenterally is a reasonable first-line
intervention for patients with acute NMS.
•Dantrolene is a skeletal muscle relaxant.
– Effective in treating malignant hyperthermia + rigidity. Rapid onset
– Doses of 1 to 2.5 mg/kg IV, maximum dose of 10 mg/kg/day
– Associated: risk of hepatotoxicity,
– 10 days then taper
– Time to complete recovery was reduced to 9 days (from a mean of 15 days)
Medical treatment
•
Bromocriptine, a dopamine agonist, to restore dopaminergic tone.
– Doses of 2.5 mg (through NG tube) every six to eight hours are titrated up
to a maximum dose of 40 mg/day.
– 10 days then taper.
– Time to complete recovery was reduced to 10 days (from a mean of 15 days)
•
Amantadine has dopaminergic and anticholinergic effects
– Alternative to bromocriptine.
– An initial dose is 100 mg PO or NG, max dose of 200 mg q12 hrs.
Electroconvulsive therapy “ECT”
•
NO prospective, randomized, controlled data supporting its efficacy.
•
The rationale for the use of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in NMS includes:
– its efficacy in treating malignant catatonia
– and reports of Parkinsonism improving with ECT.
•
ECT is generally reserved for patients not responding to other treatments.
•
During ECT succinylcholine should be avoided in patients with rhabdomyolysis to
prevent acute hyperkalemia and cardiovascular complications.
Prognosis
• Reported recovery times are 7 to 11 days.
• Mortality rates are 5 to 20%
– Predictors: severity + medical complications.
Restarting Neuroleptics
– Wait atleast 2 wks
– Use lower potency agents
– Start with low dose + titrate slowly.
– Avoid concomitant lithium
– Avoid dehydration.
Serotonin Syndrome
Def:
Is a potentially life-threatening condition associated with increased
serotonergic activity in the CNS and PNS due to adverse drug reaction.
- Therapeutic drug use
- Intentional self poisoning
- Interaction between drugs
Epi:
- Increasing incidence in parallel the increasing use of serotonergic
agents in medical practice.
- 14 to 16 % of persons who overdose on SSRIs.
Case:
18 yr F previously healthy. In January started on Phenelzine for stress by
a psychiatrist after failure of Imipramine, flurazepam and diazepam. Late
February had her tooth extracted so was given Percodan (ASA +
Oxycodone) for pain. Few days later had Fever and Otalgia so her Family
MD prescribed Erythromycin and Chlorpheniramine.
Over the next few days worsening fever 41 C, chills, myalgias and
arthralgias. In ER pt was agitated, febrile, hyperemic right temporal
memebrane, clear chest and petechiae on right thigh.
Labs: WBC 18000, CXR: clear.
She was started on IV fluids + Tylenol and pan-cultured. Admitted to
Medical floor 02:00.
Provisional dx : Viral syndrome with hysterical symptoms.
Plan: No Abx, wait for Cx, D/C phenelzine and 25mg of meperidine be givin
for agitation and shivering.
03:30  Meperidine IM givin
Pt more restless, confused and thrashing the bed.
04:30  Restraints + 1mg Haloperidol
Pt calm down for short period and was able to take her Tylenol by
mouth.
~06:30  More agitated + Axilla temp of 42 C
 cooling blankets + cold compresses.
 Respiratory arrest and could not be resuscitated.
Seven 5-HT
1 to 7 receptors
5-HT2A Associated with the condition
Serotonergic neurons
CNS:
- Primarily in the midline raphe
nuclei.
Regulation of:
- Wakefulness, affective
behavior, food intake,
- Thermoregulation, emesis,
- Sexual behavior.
- Nciception
- Motor tone.
PNS:
- assists in the regulation of:
- vascular tone
- gastrointestinal motility.
Clinical features
• Triad of
– Mental status changes,
• Include anxiety, agitated delirium, restlessness, and disorientation
– Neuromuscular abnormalities
• tremor, muscle rigidity, myoclonus, hyper-reflexia, and bilateral Babinski sign
– Autonomic hyperactivity,
• Include diaphoresis, tachycardia, hyperthermia, hypertension, vomiting, and
diarrhea
Laboratory Evaluation
• Nonsepsific
– Elevation of WBC
– Elevation of CK
– Decrease serum bicarbonate conc.
Complications: Including
- Seizure
- DIC
- Rhabdomyolysis, Myoglobinuria, “Renal failure”
- Metabolic acidosis,
- ARDS
Diagnostic criteria
Hunter Toxicity Criteria Decision Rules.
84 % sensitive and 97 % specific
To fulfill Criteria:
A patient must have taken a serotonergic agent and meet ONE
of the following conditions:
•Spontaneous clonus
•Inducible clonus
•Ocular clonus
•Tremor
•Hypertonia
clonus or
PLUS
PLUS
PLUS
PLUS
agitation or diaphoresis
agitation or diaphoresis
hyperreflexia
temperature above 38ºC PLUS ocular
inducible clonus
Differential diagnosis
Management
•
•
•
Removal of precipitating drugs
Monitored care
Supportive care
– Monitored care, IV fluids, correction of electrolyte abn.
•
Control of agitation (Chemical > physical)
– Sedation with benzodiazepines IV. (prolonged survival in rats)
– Butyrophenones (eg, droperidol and haloperidol) should be avoided; due to
anticholinergic properties that inhibit sweating and increase body heat.
Management
•
5-HT2A Antagonist
– Antidote: Cyproheptadine —
• If benzodiazepines and supportive care fail to improve agitation and
correct vital signs,
• H1 receptor antagonist + nonspecific 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A antagonistic
properties
• It also has weak anticholinergic activity.
•
Control of autonomic instability
– HTN and Tachycardia:
• using short acting agents. E.g esmolol or nitroprusside.
– Hypotention:
• using sympathomimetic amines e.g. phenylephrine or epinephrine.
•
Persistent hyperthermia
– Might need elimination of muscle activity.
– Sedation in moderaye case.
– If temp >41.1 C  paralysis, and Orotracheal intubation
•
avoid succinylcholine  arrhythmia due to hyperkalemia associated with rhabdomyolysis.
Prognosis
•
Symptoms usually resolve within 24 hours of discontinuing the
serotonergic agent and initiating care,
•
PREVENTION —
– Serotonin syndrome can be avoided by applying
• educating clinicians and pts on symptoms.
• and modifying prescription practices
•
Multi-drug regimens should be avoided, if possible.
Acute dystonic reaction
“Drug induced”
Definition of Dystonia:
Dystonia is a neurologic disorder dominated by
involuntary, stereotyped, patterned (sustained or
spasmodic) contractions of muscles.
These movements frequently cause twisting and other
abnormal movements or postures.
Lordosis or scoliosis
Tortipelvic crisis Typically involves hip,
pelvis, and abdominal
wall muscles, causes
difficulty with
ambulation
Epidemiology:
- 0.5% to 1% of patients given metoclopramide or prochlorperazine.
- Risk of reaction decreases as age increases
Etiology
The most common causes
• Neuroleptics (antipsychotics),
• Antiemetics
• Antidepressants (esp SSRI)
• Alcohol and cocaine use increase risk.
Predisposing factors
• Predisposing factors include (1) a family history of dystonia and
(2) viral infection.
Etiology
Other drugs “case reports”
-Anticonvulsant drugs (carbamazepine, phenytoin),
-antimalaria agents (chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, amodiaquine)
Acute dystonic reaction
• 50% occur within 48 hrs
• 90 % within 5 days of initiation of treatment.
• Risk factors:
– Family hx of dystonic
– Recent cocaine or alcohol use
– Recent tx with potent D2 receptor anatagonist
(haldol, fluphenazine)
Pathophysiology
•
Drug-induced alteration of dopaminergic-cholinergic balance in the
nigrostriatum
•
Mostly by dopamine D2 receptor blockade,
– which leads to an excess of striatal cholinergic output.
– High-potency D2 receptor antagonists are most likely to produce an
acute dystonic reaction.
– Increased age may carry less risk for the development of dystonia
because of diminished numbers of D2 receptors.
Treatment:
Usually Pharmacologic tx in ER
Airway protection rarely required except if:
- Laryngeal or pharyngeal dystonia.
Anticholinergic agents
Benzodiazepines
Pt related risk factors for dystonia caused by tx with
antipsychotic drugs.
Prevention
Secondary prevention:
• After the dystonia has resolved, treatment with anticholinergics
should be continued in addition to the treatment with
antipsychotic drugs for at least 24 to 48 hours to prevent a
recurrence.
• In practice, treatment with the anticholinergic drug is usually
continued for four to seven days.
Neurologic Side Effect of
Chemotherapeutic agents.
• Central nervous system
• Peripheral Nervous system
– Generally present with stocking-glove or length-dependent signs and
symptoms.
Taxanes:
 microtubule stabilizing agent interferes with mitotic spindles during
cell mitosis.
 e.g. Paclitaxel, docetaxel, new albumin bound Paclitaxel.
 usually used in Solid tumors e.g. lung, breast, and prostate cancer.
 Often in combination with platinum agents.
 Dose limiting toxicity, and probably single-dose toxicityas well.
•
 Pathogeneesis:
–
Possible direct effect on dorsal root ganglia sensory neurons.
Neurological complications:
10%
Clinical features:
Early symptoms:
- numbness and dysesthesias that begin distally in the legs
- Can be asymmetric or involve the hands or face early in the course.
- Muscle stretch reflexes are diminished or absent.
Posterior column involvement:
- Some patients have Lhermitte phenomenon.
- impairment of proprioception and vibration sense.
Autonomic involvement
Distal or proximal weakness with myalgias can occur in more severely affected
patients.
EMG/ NCs:
- Reduction or disappearance of sural sensory nerve potentials,
- wide- spread sensorimotor axonal neuropathy in severely affected patients.
Acute pain syndrome (some pts)
- Within 1 or 2 days after treatment,
- Resolves after several days.
- Often involves the back and proximal limbs.
- The syndrome may be caused by:
- sensitization of nociceptors
Albumin-bound paclitaxel,
- Less infusional reactions with paclitaxel
- Higher tumor response rate, 33% versus 19%,
- Higher rate of significant neuropathy, 10% versus 2%.
- The observed neuropathy is purely sensory
- resolve with D/C of tx or dose reduction within an average of
3 wks
Vinca alkaloids
 plant-derived microtubule assembly inhibitors.
 Vincristine, vinblastine and vinorelbine.
 Vincristine, the oldest and most neurotoxic:
- still used in leukemias, lymphomas, myeloma, and sarcomas.
- Dose limiting toxicity
Neurological SE:
- PNS“Symmetric Sensorimotor axonal polyneurpathy”.
- Range from:
- Peripheral sensorimotor loss to Autonomic dysfunction.
- Nearly all pts to some degree with Vincristine.
- CNS (infrequent)
- Ataxia, cranial nerve palsies, cortical blindness and
- seizures (rare)
Platinum compounds
 Covalently bind and damage DNA
 e.g. Cisplatin, Carboplatin, and Oxaliplatin.
 Used in nearly all types of solid tumors.
PNS “Sensory neuropathy” Dose-limiting toxicity (Cumulative dose)
- Higher incidences are seen with cisplatin and oxaliplatin.
- Cisplatin is more often irreversible
- Mechanism: Injury/death of dorsal root ganglion neurons.
Clinical features:
- Subacute length-dependent numbness, paresthesias, dysesthesias,
areflexia, and sensory ataxia. Temp sensation is relatively spared.
- Dorsal columne involvement (rarely)
- Worsens and spreads proximally for several months after cisplatin is
discontinued
- Oxaliplatin
- Induce a unique acute reversible neuropathy in addition to CIPN.
- Within hrs to days of infusion,~ 80%, distal paresthesias and
mild muscle contractions.
- +/- visual changes, voice changes, perioral paresthesias
- EMG in these patients shows peripheral nerve hy- perexcitability
resembling neuromyoto- nia
- Triggered by Cold exposure, resolve spontaneously.
- Mechanism:
- Oxalate chelate ca2+ and mg  affecting calcium
dependent voltage-gated Na Ch
Thalidomide
 is an oral immunomodulatory and anti- angiogenic agent.
 Uses: multiple myeloma
Neurotoxicity:
 CIPN
 Distal sensory neuropathy in ~ 50% of patients. Rarely motor
neuropathy.
 Correlated with length of tx.
A recent study by Mileshkin L et al, 2006:
75 patients with relapsed or refractory myeloma, correlated
symptoms with length of treatment
A comparison of 6 months versus 12 months of thalidomide
therapy.
Resulted in CIPN in 38% and 78% of patients, respectively.
Lenalidomide, a novel analog of thalidomide,
Much less neurotoxic ~ 15% or less.
Cytarabine
 A nucleotide analog precursor that inhibits DNA polymerase,
 Uses:
 IV in almost all types of leukemia
 Intrathecal treatment of leukemia or lymphoma.
Neurotoxicity:
Irreversible cerebellar ataxia has long been associated with higher
doses of cytarabine, age over 40, and abnormal liver or kidney
function. If treatment is continued after onset of symptoms,
neurologic deficits can be permanent.
High-dose cytarabine is occasionally associated with peripheral
neuropathy Including:
- distal sensorimotor polyneuropathy;
- brachial plexopathy;
- Rapidly progressive, ascending neuropathy resembling GBS
Prevention and Treatment
Agents with possible protective effects on chemotherapy-induced neuropathy
includes:
• acetylcarnitine,
• amifostine,
• glutamine,
• glutathione,
• vitamin E,
• xaliproden,
Mostly studied in preclinical animal models or small uncontrolled clinical trials.
The most extensively studied
- amifostine, an organic thiophosphate with cytoprotective effects.
- Use was not recommended due to conflicting results from published
randomized trials.
- Vitamin E exerted a protective effect in small randomized studies of
patients receiving paclitaxel and/or cisplatin.
Nortriptyline, gabapentin, and lamotrigine seem to benefit individual patients but have not been
shown to be effective in a few placebo-controlled, double- blinded studies.
References
•
•
•
•
Risk factors for neuroleptic malignant syndrome. A case-control study.Keck PE Jr, Pope HG
Jr, Cohen BM, McElroy SL, Nierenberg AA. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46(10):914.
Progression of symptoms in neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Velamoor VR, Norman RM, Caroff SN, Mann
SC, Sullivan KA, Antelo RE. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1994;182(3):168.
Neurologic complications of chemotherapy agents , George Kannarkata, Erin E. Lasherb and David Schiffc
Neurological complication of chemotheraputic agents. AAN Continum