• For social learning theorists, learning occurs
by watching others. Observational learning
means that our parents and teachers can play
significant roles in shaping our personalities,
because we acquire both good and bad habits
by watching and imitating them.
In observational learning, parents, teachers, and other adults play significant roles in
shaping children’s personalities: Children learn good and bad habits by watching and
later emulating adults. This child may learn early that charitable giving is a worthy
endeavor.
• They emphasized individuals’ sense of control
over life events. Rotter introduced the term of
locus of control to describe the extent to
which we believe that reinforcers and
punishers lie inside or outside of our control.
• People with an internal locus of control
believe that life events are due to their own
efforts and personal characteristics. People
with an external locus of control believe that
life events are a product of chance and fate.
• Almost all forms of psychological distress are
associated with an external locus of control.
Evaluated Scientifically
• Placed psychology on strong scientific base.
Critics:
• However…
– Radical behaviorists’ ignoring of cognition is not
supported by research.
– Social learning’s emphasis on shared environment
is non supported.
How much of the daughter’s personality and mannerisms are
due to social learning from her mother? The scientific verdict is
still out.
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Definition of Personality
Causes of Personality
Psychoanalytic theory
Behavioral and social learning theories
• HUMANISTIC MODELS OF PERSONALITY: THE
THIRD FORCE
Carl Rogers
• In the 1950s and 1960s humanistic
model merged as a “third force”
• Rejected notion of determinism of
psychonalysts and behaviorists.
Supported free will. We’re free to
choose our way in life.
• Proposed self-actualization as
core motive in personality. It is the
drive to develop our innate
potential to the fullest possible
extent.
Roger’s Model
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Three major components of personality:
1. The organism (innate, genetic design)
2. The self (set of beliefs about who we are)
3. Conditions of worth= expectations we place
on ourselves for appropriate and inappropriate
behavior. We accept ourselves only if we act in
certain ways. Individual differences in
personality originate from differences in the
conditions of worth. It result in incongruence
between self and organism.
Incongruence=Inconsistency between our
personalities and innate dispositions.
Self-Actualization
• Maslow: self-actualized people tend to be creative,
spontaneous, and accepting of themselves and
others. They are self-confident but not selfcentered.
• They prone to peak experiences, transcendent
moments.
Mahatma Gandhi is one of the historical
figures whom Abraham Maslow considered
to be self-actualized.
Evaluated Scientifically
• Comparative psychology challenges Rogers’
claim that our nature is entirely positive.
• Rogers’ and Maslow’s research was filled with
methodological difficulties.
• Many non-falsifiable assumptions.
• TRAIT MODELS OF PERSONALITY
Trait Models of Personality
• Interested in describing and understanding the
structure of personality.
• Allport used factor analysis to reduce diversity of
personality descriptors to underlying traits.
• factor analysis=statistical technique that analyzes
the correlations among responses on scales to
identify the underlying “factors.
• Five traits have repeatedly appeared in the studies.
Big Five Model (Costa, McCrae, et al)
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Openness to Experience
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Big Five and Behavior
• Predict many important real-world behaviors
– Job performance and grades in school
• Conscientiousness is positively associated with
physical health and life span.
• Relatively similar traits seen across cultures,
but different prevalence rates
– Individualist vs collectivistic societies
• People from individualistic cultures usually
report higher self-esteem than those from
collectivist cultures.
Tendencies vs Adaptations
• Basic tendencies are underlying personality traits;
characteristic adaptations are their behavioral
manifestations.
• Same trait can manifest in very different ways.
• Sensation seeking is the tendency to seek out new
and exciting stimuli, the sensation seeking scores
are identical in firefighters and criminals.
Can Personality Change?
• Some variability prior to age 30, but little thereafter.
Openness, extraversion, and neuroticism tend to
decline a bit from the late 10s to early 30s, whereas
conscientiousness and agreeableness tend to
increase a bit.
• Cosmetic psychopharmacology is the use of
medications to produce long-term changes in
personality.
• Some evidence for changing of personality
psychopharmacologically, but should we?
Evaluated Scientifically
• Mischel’s argument concerning behavioral
inconsistency. Mischel found low correlations
among different behaviors presumed to reflect the
same trait. Mischel concluded that measures of
personality aren’t especially helpful for predicting
behavior.
• Response was that traits are predictors of
aggregate, not isolated behaviors.
• Primarily describe individual differences rather than
what causes them.
• Personality Assessment
Personality Assessment
• In the history of personality assessment, there
were a lot of doubtful methods such as:
– Phrenology (head shape)
– Physiognomy (facial characteristics)
– Sheldon’s body types
Sheldon’s Body Types. Three major body types are associated
with different personality traits. Yet research hasn’t proved
Sheldon’s claims. Because Sheldon wasn’t blind to body type
when rating people’s personality traits, his findings may have
been due to bias.
• All lacked two key criteria – reliability and
validity.
• structured and projective techniques.
Structured Personality Tests
• Paper-and-pencil tests consisting of questions
you respond to in one of a few fixed ways (T/F
or Y/N or Likert formats).
• The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI) is most researched test.
– 567 true-false questions
– 10 basic scales
MMPI
• Developed using empirical method of test
construction.
• Contains three validity scales designed to detect
various types of distorted responses.
– L (Lie) detects impression management
– F (Frequency) detects malingering
– K (Correction) measures defensive responding
MMPI Evaluated Scientifically
• Most scales are both reliable as well as valid
for differentiating among mental disorders.
• Problematic in several ways
– Unnecessary scales
– Not used for formal diagnosis
– Scales can be misused
Rational/Theoretical Method
• Requires test developers to begin with a clearcut conceptualization of a trait and then write
items to assess that conceptualization.
• Some have strong reliability and validity (NEO
PI-R) but others do not (Myers-Briggs).
Projective Tests
• Ask examinees to interpret or make sense of
ambiguous stimuli.
• Based on projective hypothesis.
– When interpreting ambiguous stimuli, people
project aspects of their personality onto them.
• Reliability and validity are in controversial.
Rorschach Inkblot Test: WHAT
MIGHT THIS BE?
• Consists of ten symmetrical inkblots, five in
black-and-white and five containing color.
• Examiners ask respondents to look at each
inkblot and say what it resembles.
• This supposedly tells you about personality
traits of the respondent.
photo from zehfernando's Flickr photostream
Rorschach Evaluated Scientifically
• Unknown test-retest and problematic
interrater reliability scores.
• Little evidence that it detects features of
mental disorders.
• Lack of incremental validity.
Thematic Apperception Test:
Tell a Tale
• Requires subject to construct
a story based on pictures.
• Little evidence for adequate
reliability or validity for most
applications.
Other Projective Tests
• Human figure drawings require you to draw a
person(s) in any way you wish.
• Graphology – analysis of handwriting – is
another projective test.
• Neither has scientific support for its use and
claims.
Handwriting SampleThese graphologists analyzed the handwriting of the
major candidates in the 2008 presidential election, and concluded, for example,
that John McCain’s “slashing comma” reveals a possible temper problem and
that Barack Obama’s “smooth” writing style reflects an ability to handle
situations well.
Dangers in Personality Assessment
• The PT Barnum effect is the tendency to accept
high base rate descriptors as accurate
– Astrology and tarot readings
• Each reading contained general statements that
apply to everyone, clients who heard only one
reading found it believable.
The popularity of tarot card reading, crystal ball reading,
palmistry, and many similar techniques probably
originates from the P.T. Barnum effect.
• Overall, personality assessment can be useful,
but only if using valid, reliable instruments.