Chapter One
An Introduction to Rhetoric: Using the “Available Means”
THE LANGUAGE OF
COMPOSITION
Reading, Writing, Rhetoric

What is Rhetoric?
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Defined by Aristotle as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.”
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Leads to effective communication
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And it’s important because…
 use the “available means,” acquire a position of strength

Key Elements of Rhetoric
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Rhetoric can be studied in relation to both spoken and written words
July 4, 1939 – Lou Gehrig delivers a speech to baseball fans
** Alt version of audio

Key Elements – Context / Purpose
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What is context?
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What was Gehrig’s context?
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- between double header
- contrast between celebration and “bad break”
What was his purpose?
- remain positive
- is straightforward, honest, focused
Other general purposes?
Beware of contextual bias

Key Elements – Thesis / Speaker
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Claim, Assertion, Thesis: clear and focused
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Gehrig: “luckiest man on the face of the earth”
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Subject: baseball! Gehrig knows it well
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Speaker: common man, baseball player, modest, courageous, not orator… he explicitly showed these traits of himself
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All of theses elements combined to make Gehrig’s speech one of the most famous of the early 20 th century

Rhetorical / Aristotelian Triangle
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Shows interaction
Interaction determines structure and language of
“argument”
Speaker
Audience Subject

Rhetorical / Aristotelian Triangle
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Subject: topic, background, evidence
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Speaker: sometimes author, sometimes persona
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Persona examples: student, concerned citizen, activist, expert, etc.
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Audience: knowledge? attitude? bias?
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How do these interactions affect the argument?

Rhetorical Appeals - Ethos
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Ethos is the appeal to the character of the speaker, to demonstrate that they are credible and trustworthy
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Sometimes reputation is enough
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Sometimes tone is enough
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Often an appeal to ethos is found explicitly within the argument
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Ethos gives the audience a reason for listening

Rhetorical Appeals - Logos
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Logos is an appeal to reason (logic) by offering clear, rational ideas
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Achieved through clear thesis with specific and sufficient support
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Based on an assumption or underlying belief
(Gehrig example: Bad breaks are natural and inevitable)
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Logos includes counterargument: concession and refutation

Rhetorical Appeals - Pathos
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Pathos is the appeal to emotions of the audience
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Not often effective by itself
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Accomplished through choice of language, personal anecdotes… whatever engages emotions of audience
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Language = connotation
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Visuals can add to pathos
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Propaganda – relies almost wholly on pathos… unique situation because of audience

Ethos, Pathos and Logos in Practice

Ethos, Pathos and Logos in Practice
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“Our government” – she is part of it, she is critical on behalf of audience
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Her credentials as researcher
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Location (context) of publication/audience establishes ethos

Ethos, Pathos and Logos in Practice
Her frame as an economic issue is appeal to logic
Uses cause/effect examples
Addresses the opposition – “myths”

Ethos, Pathos and Logos in Practice
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Occasion of Mother’s Day– even though she doesn’t ID herself as a mother

Synthesizing our learning…
If time allows: Article on Twitter, in pairs
Collected Homework: Assignment, pg 9
(Albert Einstein letter) – follow instructions in book.

Visual Rhetoric
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Elements of Rhetoric can also be applied to visual texts
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Political cartoons, advertisements, visual aids
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Sometimes satirical, not always
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Rosa Parks cartoon, pg 11: subject, speaker, audience, context, purpose, ethos, pathos, logos

Rhetoric from Literature
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Literature is also persuasive
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Example: Julius Caesar speech
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How does Antony appeal to ethos, pathos and logos??

Arrangement
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Organization of a piece is also part of rhetoric
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Beginning, middle, end - - intro, body, conclusion
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Arrangement depends on purpose and intended effect
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Not always conscious, but should be considered

Classical Model
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introduction – Any number of paragraphs. Piques interest in some way. Establish ethos.
Narration – Factual and background material.
Establishes the “why.” Appeal to logos OR pathos.
Confirmation – Development of proof. Examples.
Appeal to logos.
Refutation – Addresses counterargument. Can appear anywhere within argument. Appeal to logos.
Conclusion – Answers the question “so what?” Brings it all together. Appeal to pathos and ethos (reminder)

Patterns of Development
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Arrangement according to purpose
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Author’s purpose suggests a particular method of arrangement
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Organize an entire text, or paragraphs within one

Narration
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Telling a story or recounting events
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Based on personal experience or observation
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Usually chronological, detailed
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Has a point of view and sometimes dialogue
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Think of it as crafting a story… that supports your thesis!
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Often used as a way to introduce topics

Description
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Often with narration
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Emphasis on details, not story
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Establish a mood or atmosphere
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Not used alone… ineffective
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Vivid description can make your writing more persuasive
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Examples: Ehrenreich and Orwell

Process Analysis
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Explains how something works, how to do something, or how it was done
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Clarity
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Logical, chronological, thorough
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Ex. Writing about a scientific experiment or survey.
In Psych, papers start with methodology

Exemplification
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Providing a series of examples: facts, specifics
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Makes argument clearer and more persuasive
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Inductive reasoning: a series of examples leads to a conclusion
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A few very thorough examples can be just as convincing as several brief ones

Comparison and Contrast
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Juxtaposing two things to highlight similarities and difference
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Use to analyze information, to reveal insights
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Some AP prompts are like this! Analyze differences in style
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Subject by subject: discuss all elements of one, then the other ORRRR
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Point by point: organized around specific ideas of comparison

Classification and Division
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Sorting material into major categories
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Writer’s task is to develop own categories, find a way to break it down into parts
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Example: Amy Tan’s “Englishes” classification

Definition
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Lay common ground in an essay
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Ex: define “successful” if that’s what your essay is addressing
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Can be a simple paragraph, or the point of an entire paper
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Ex: essay defining family

Cause and Effect
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Be wary of establishing factual causes: not every
“cause” directly causes an effect (logic flaws)

Patterns of Development
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Assignment: pg. 26 – examine arrangement / patterns of development in “We Can Afford to
Give Parents a Break”