 Claims are debatable or controversial
statements/assertions you hope to prove
Evidence and
Reasons
Claim
 A claim answers the question “what should we do?”
 􀂃A surprisingly large number of arguments don’t have
claims. “The President is dumb” “Our taxes are too
high” or, “The war is immoral” are all examples of
arguments without claims.
 Warrant answers the question: How do I get from the
claim to the data?
Reasons
So Claim
Since Warrant
 Warrants are the unstated (or stated) assumptions or
agreements you can rely on your audience making in
order to believe your reasons.
 Warrants support reasons
 They can be oversimplified to ___________ is good OR
___________ is bad.
Example:
 Vending machines should be removed from campus
because they promote unhealthy eating habits and
cause classroom distractions.
Warrant #1= Unhealthy eating habits hurt students
Warrant #2= Classroom distractions are undesirable
Examples
 ADOT needs to widen the I-17 now because traffic
congestion has worsened and fatal accidents have
increased.
Warrant #1= ?
Traffic congestion is bad
Warrant #2= ?
People dying is worse
• Everyone should be able to express their religious beliefs
because it is their right to do so.
Warrant #1= ?
if it is a right, we should be able to do it (also-religious
expression is a right)
Examples
 The NBA should accept players out of high school
because players like Lebron James and Kobe Bryant are
beneficial to teams.
Warrant #1= ?
Talented players who benefit teams are important
enough to society that we can overlook the
age/education factor
 Warrants tell you what arguments you have to make
and at what level you have to make them
The mushroom is
poisonous
So do not eat
it!
Since eating poisonous
things is dangerous
More examples
Smoking causes
serious diseases in
smokers and
endangers nonsmokers as well.
So the federal
government should
ban smoking.
Since the Constitution was
established to “promote the
general welfare,” and citizens
are thus entitled to
protection from the harmful
acts of others.
More examples
I have been drinking
since age 14 without a
problems.
So the legal age for
drinking should be
lowered.
What works for me
should work for
everyone else.
Backing
 Additional support or proof you might need to prove





your reasons are good if your warrant is shaky or
arguable
Example: Violent music lyrics cause violent behavior
because they cause people to think in violent ways.
Warrant= ?
Does the warrant need backing?
Could the claim be qualified?
How?
More examples
Fill in the Reasons and Identify the Backing
NASA should launch a
human expedition to
Mars because Americans
need a unifying national
goal.
What unifies the
nation should be a
national priority.
On a personal level,
Americans want to be a part of
something bigger than
themselves. (Emotional
appeal)
In a country as diverse
as the US, common
purposes and values
help make a nation
stronger. (Ethical
appeal)
In the past, enterprises such as
westward expansion, WWII, and the
Apollo moon program enabled many
(though not at all) Americans to work
toward common goals. (Logical appeal
as evidence)
Fill in the blanks
If the federal gov’t can
spend huge amounts of $
on the military, it can
afford to spend moderate
amounts on arts programs.
A country that can
fund expensive
programs can also
afford less expensive
programs.
(Emotional appeal)
(Ethical appeal)
(Logical appeal as evidence)
Fill in the blanks
Vanessa went to NAU and
makes $50,000/year, while
Jonny went to work right
after graduating from
SDOHS and makes
$20,000/year.
In most cases, people who
don’t go to college earn
less money than those
who do.
(Ethical appeal)
(Emotional appeal)
(Logical appeal as evidence)
Using Qualifiers
Few
It is possible
Rarely
It seems
Some
It may be
More or less
In some cases
Many
Routinely
Most
One may argue
Often
Perhaps
Possibly
Under these conditions
For the most part
If it were so
Conditions of Rebuttal
 Potential objections to the argument/claim.
Claim- The federal gov’t should support the arts because
it also supports the military.
Warrant- If the federal gov’t can support the military, it
can also support other programs.
Rebuttal-The federal gov’t is constitutionally obligated
to fund the military. Support for public TV or a local
dance troop is hardly in the same league.
Concession
 Acknowledging a part of the opposing argument that
can not be refuted
 Rebuttal follows the concession but uses it to build
upon or further one’s OWN claim.
 Example: It is true that SB1070 is a deterrent to illegal
immigrants who might cross through Arizona.
However, the additional manpower needed to enforce
the law will allow other crimes to go unpursued.
Outline of the Toulmin Model
 Claim- The federal gov’t should ban smoking.
 Qualifier- The ban would be limited to public spaces.
 Reason- Smoking causes disease in smokers. Non-
smokers are endangered by second hand smoke.
 Warrant- The Constitution promises “to promote the
general welfare.” And citizens are entitled to
protection from harmful actions by others.
 Backing- The US is based on a political system that is
suppose to serve the basic needs of its people,
including their health.
 Evidence- 102,002 deaths attributed to second hand
smoke in 2010. Lawsuit won against Camel Cigarettes,
citing the need for smoking related health costs.
 Authority- ?
Surgeon general. Doctor, scientist
 Concession- ?
The ban applies to public places; smokers can smoke in
private or designated areas.
 Rebuttal- ?
Smokers have rights too. Smoking laws should be left to
the individual states.
Now read an example passage
 Read “Testing Speech Codes”
 Annotate/identify the Toulmin terms in the passage