LEARNING- Masuwa K.C., MSc.
Definitions:
➢ Any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced by
experience.
➢ Van den Ban & Hawkins (1988) defined learning as the acquiring or improving the ability
to perform a behavioural pattern through experience and practice.
➢ Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
experience or practice (Weiss, 1990).
➢ Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that results from practice
(Atkinson et al, 1993).
➢ According to Woolfolk (1995), learning occurs when experience causes a relatively
permanent change in an individual’s knowledge or behaviour.
Features of learning
Learning involves change: change may be good or bad, desirable or undesirable. The change must
be relatively permanent: temporary changes may be only reflexive and fail to represent any
learning.
The change must be brought about by experience: The change may be deliberate or
unintentional, for better or for worse. To qualify as learning, this change must be brought about
by experience – by the interaction of a person with his or her environment.
THEORIES OF LEARNING
1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING-Ivan Pavlov (and J.B Watson).
Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning process that
occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring
stimulus.
The Classical Conditioning Process
Classical conditioning basically involves forming an association between two stimuli resulting in
a learned response. There are three basic phases of this process:
Phase 1: Before Conditioning
The first part of this process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will automatically elicit
a response. Salivating in response to the smell of food is a good example of a naturally
occurring stimulus. During this phase of the processes, the unconditioned stimulus (USC) results
in an unconditioned response (UCR). In the case of Pavlov’s experiment, the dogs salivating to
food.
•
The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS).
The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically
triggers a response. For example, when you smell one of your favourite foods, you may
immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the
unconditioned stimulus.
•
The Unconditioned Response (UCR).
The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response
to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the
smell of food is the unconditioned response.
Phase 2: During Conditioning
During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral stimulus is
repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing, an association
between the previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed. At this point the neutral
stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). In case of Pavlov’s experience, it is
the pairing of food and a bell.
•
The Conditioned Stimulus
The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated
with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.
Phase 3: After Conditioning
Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, presenting the conditioned
stimulus (CS) alone will come to evoke a response even in the absence of the unconditioned
stimulus. The resulting response is known as the conditioned response (CR).
•
The Conditioned Response
The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.
Examples of Classical Conditioning
It can be helpful to look at a few examples of how the classical conditioning process operates
both in experimental and real-worlds settings:
A Fear Response
One of the most famous examples of classical conditioning was John B. Watson's experiment in
which a fear response was conditioned in a young boy known as Little Albert. The child initially
showed no fear of a white rabbit, but after the presentation of the rabbit was paired repeatedly
with loud, scary sounds, the child would cry when the rabbit was present. The child's fear also
generalized to other fuzzy white objects. He even feared his father’s beards and mum’s woollen
coat.
Classical Conditioning in the Real World
In reality, people do not respond exactly like Pavlov's dogs. There are, however, numerous realworld applications for classical conditioning.
These techniques are also useful in the treatment of phobias or anxiety problems.
2. OPERANT CONDITIONING AND REINFORCEMENT by BF Skinner
Definition - Type of learning in which the consequences of behaviour influence whether the
organism will act in the same way in the future - the animal learns the relationship between his
own behaviour and a reinforcing or punishing stimulus.
Operant conditioning is a term that was coined by B.F Skinner in 1937 in an experiment on a rat
in his skinner box.
REINFORNCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT
Reinforcement - An environmental stimulus which is contingent on a response and increases the
probability of a response.
Punishment - An environmental stimulus which is contingent on a response and decreases the
probability of a response.
Positive
(something
added)
Negative
(something
removed)
Reinforcement
Punishment
(behaviour increases)
(behaviour decreases)
Something
added
behaviour
increases Something added decreases
behaviour
Something removed increases Something
behaviour
removed
decreases behaviour
Reinforcement
1. Primary Reinforcement -A stimulus that does not require an organism to learn its reinforcing
qualities, for examples (food, water, sex).
2. Secondary Reinforcement -A neutral stimulus that, through constant association with primary
reinforcers, acquires its own reinforcing qualities. For examples (praises, grades).
Bribery vs. Reinforcement - some say reinforcing someone for acting the way they should is
Bribery but offering incentives is not necessary Bribery.
Factors Influencing Effectiveness of Reinforcement
When using consequences to modify a response, the effectiveness of a consequence can be
increased or decreased by various factors. These factors can apply to either reinforcing or
punishing consequences.
➢ Immediacy of Reinforcement - The greater the delay in administering the reinforcer the
less the effect.
➢ Verbalization - It helps verbalizing the connection between the behaviour and the
reinforcement to strengthen the connection.
➢ Satiation/Deprivation: The effectiveness of a consequence will be reduced if the
individual's "appetite" for that source of stimulation has been satisfied. Inversely, the
effectiveness of a consequence will increase as the individual becomes deprived of that
stimulus.
➢ Contingency: If a consequence does not contingently (reliably, or consistently) follow the
target response, its effectiveness upon the response is reduced. But if a consequence
follows the response consistently after successive instances, its ability to modify the
response is increased.
➢ Size: This is a "cost-benefit" determinant of whether a consequence will be effective. If
the size, or amount, of the consequence is large enough to be worth the effort, the
consequence will be more effective upon the behaviour. For example, the best pupil at
Canisius High School, receiving a scholarship award, than just mere clapping for him.
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
i. Continuous vs. Partial Schedules
Continuous - A reward is given every single time the response is elicited. Generally used only to
establish behaviour, it is easy to extinguish.
Partial - The subject is only occasionally rewarded for the proper response, more resistant to
extinction.
ii. Partial Schedules Either Ratio or Interval
Ratio - Based on the number of correct responses the organism makes between reinforcements.
Interval - Based on the amount of time that has elapsed between reinforcements.
iii. Fixed or Variable Schedules
Fixed - regular schedule
Variable - irregular schedule
iv. Four Possible Partial Schedules
➢ Fixed-Ratio - Reinforcement depends on a certain amount of behaviour being emitted,
for example every fifth response is reinforced. For example a typist who gets paid after a
certain number of pages is typed.
➢ Variable-Ratio - The number of required responses varies around some average. For
example a Salesman who sells something to the second customer, then to the sixth, the
eighth, etc. also gambler at a slot machine, the faster he puts money in machine the faster
he will hit jackpot.
➢ Fixed-Interval - Reinforcement is given at a predetermined time no matter how many
responses have been emitted. For example awarding hard working staff on every May 1
(labor day).
➢ Variable-Interval - The time a reinforcer will be available varies around some average
time. Example, dialling a phone number when the line is busy, will get through but don't
know when.
COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING
Classical and operant conditioning are two important concepts central to behavioural
Psychology. While both result in learning, the processes are quite different. In order to
understand how each of these behaviour modification techniques can be used, it is also essential
to understand how classical conditioning and operant conditioning differ from one another.
The Differences between Classical and Operant Conditioning
One of the simplest ways to remember the differences between classical and operant
conditioning is to focus on whether the behaviour is involuntary or voluntary. Classical
conditioning involves making an association between an involuntary response and a stimulus,
while operant conditioning is about making an association between a voluntary behaviour and
a consequence.
In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical
conditioning involves no such enticements. Also remember that classical conditioning is passive
on the part of the learner, while operant conditioning requires the learner to actively
participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished.
3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY-Albert Bandura
The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the most influential
theory of learning and development. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional
learning theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of
learning.
While the behavioural theories of learning suggested that all learning was the result of
associations formed by conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment, Bandura's social learning
theory proposed that learning can also occur simply by observing the actions of others.
His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and
behaviours by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or modelling), this
type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviours.
Bandura explained that learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if
people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.
Fortunately, most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from
observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later
occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.
Basic Social Learning Concepts
There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory:
1. People can learn through observation.
Observational Learning
In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate
behaviours they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed an
adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a
room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously
observed.
Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:
➢ A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out behaviour.
➢ A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of behaviour.
➢ A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviours in
books, films, television programs, or online media.
2. Mental states are important to learning.
Intrinsic Reinforcement
Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence
learning and behaviour. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such
as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and
cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many
textbooks place social learning theory with behavioural theories, Bandura himself describes his
approach as a 'social cognitive theory.'
3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behaviour.
While behaviourists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behaviour,
observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without
demonstrating new behaviours.
The Modelling Process
Not all observed behaviours are effectively learned. Factors involving both the model and the
learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps
must also be followed. The following steps are involved in the observational learning and
modelling process:
•
Attention:
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that distracts your attention
is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model interesting or
there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full
attention to learning.
•
Retention:
The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process.
Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information
later and act on it is vital to observational learning.
•
Reproduction:
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to
actually perform the behaviour you observed. Further practice of the learned behaviour
leads to improvement and skill advancement.
•
Motivation:
Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to
imitate the behaviour that has been modelled. Reinforcement and punishment play an
important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly
effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or
punishment? For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for
being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES IN LEARNING
➢ Spontaneous Recovery The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after
a period of rest and with no further conditioning
➢ Extinction A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned
response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.
➢ Classical Conditioning A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about
a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response
➢ Conditioned Response (CR)- A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously
neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell).
➢ Conditioned Stimulus (CS)- A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the
unconditioned stimulus.
➢ Unconditioned Response (UCR)- A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g.,
salivation at the smell of food).
➢ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular
response without having been learned.
➢ Stimulus Discrimination The process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct
from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; the
ability to differentiate between stimuli.
➢ Stimulus Generalization Occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is
similar to the original conditioned stimulus; the more similar the two stimuli are, the more
likely generalization is to occur.
➢ Neutral Stimulus-A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the
response of interest
➢ Punishment-A stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur
again.
➢ Reinforcement The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding
behavior will be repeated.
➢ Reinforcer Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will
occur again.
REFERENCES
Hebb, DO (1949) The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory. New York: John
Wiley
Hilgard, E.R., Atkison R.L., and Carison J.G (1999). Introduction to Psychology. New York:
Harcourt.
Hull, CL (1943) Principles of Behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Kandel, ER and JH Schwartz (1982) Molecular biology of learning: Modulation of transmitter
release. Science 218:433-443
Kimble, GA (1961) Hilgard and Marquis’ Conditioning and Learning. 2nd Edition. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts.