The Psychoanalytic Approach/Psychodynamic Theories
Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis
Erich Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis
Harry Stack Sullivan: Interpersonal Theory - the one and
only American personality theorist?
Erik Erikson: Post Freudian Theory?
Neo- Psychoanalytic Approach/Psychodynamic Theories
Carl Jung : Analytical Psychology
Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology
Karen Horney: Neurotic Needs and Trends (11th ed)/
Psychoanalytic Social Theory (7th ed)
Melanie Klein: Object Relations Theory (basis
Psychoanalysis)
- John Bowlby
- Margaret Mahler
- Mary Ainsworth
- Heinz Kohut
Erich Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis
The Life Span Approach
Erik Erikson: Identity Theory (yes, i think same lng nung
post Freudian theory)(Basis Psychoanalysis)
The Genetics Approach/Dispositional Theories
Gordon Allport: Motivation and Personality
Raymond Catell, Hans Eysenck, The five factor theory,
HEXACO, and the Dark Triad
The Humanistic Approach/Existential Theories
Abraham Maslow : Needs-Hierarchy Theory
Carl Rogers: Self-Actualization Theory/ Person (Client)
Centered Theory
Rollo May: Existential Psychology
The Cognitive Approach
George Kelly: Personal Construct Theory
The Behavioral Approach
B.F. Skinner: Reinforcement Theory/ Radical Reinforcement
B.F. Skinner: Behavioral Analysis (either behavioral or
social learning approach?)
The Social-Learning Approach
Albert Bandura:Modeling Theory
Rotter and Mischel: Social Cognitive Learning Theory
And2 daw si Kelly according kay 7th ed?
George Kelly: Psychology of Personal Construct
Margaret Mahler
Heinz Kohut
John Bowlby: Attachment Theory
Mary Ainsworth: Strange Situation
ALLPORT
PSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL
Key Terms and Concepts
• Allport was eclectic in his acceptance of ideas from a variety
of sources.
• He defined personality as the dynamic organization within the
individual of those psychophysical systems that determine a
person’s behavior and thought.
• Psychologically healthy people are motivated largely by
conscious processes; have an extended sense of self; relate
warmly to others; accept themselves for who they are; have a
realistic perception of the world; and possess insight, humor,
and a unifying philosophy of life. (optimistic)
• Allport advocated a proactive position, one that emphasized
the notion that people have a large measure of conscious control
over their lives.
• Common traits are general characteristics held in common by
many people. They may be useful for comparing one group of
people with another.
• Individual traits (personal dispositions) are peculiar to the
individual and have the capacity to render different stimuli
functionally equivalent and to initiate and guide behavior.
• Three levels of personal dispositions are (1) cardinal
dispositions, which only a few people possess and which are so
conspicuous (visble, stands out) that they cannot be hidden; (2)
central dispositions, the 5 to 10 individual traits that make a
person unique; and (3) secondary dispositions, which are less
distinguishable but far more numerous than central dispositions.
• Personal dispositions that initiate actions are called
motivational traits.
• Personal dispositions that guide actions are called stylistic
traits.
• The proprium (attribute) refers to those behaviors and
personal dispositions that are warm and central to our lives and
that we regard as peculiarly our own.
• Functional autonomy- motives that are self-sustaining and
independent from the motives that were originally responsible
for a behavior.
• Perseverative(continuation) functional autonomy refers to
those habits and behaviors that are NOT part of one’s proprium
(attribute).
• Propriate functional autonomy includes all those
self-sustaining motivations that are related to the proprium.
• Allport used morphogenic procedures, such as diaries and
letters, which stress patterns of behavior within a single
individual.
ALFRED ADLER
Key Terms and Concepts
• People begin life with both an innate striving force and
physical deficiencies, which combine to produce feelings of
inferiority.
• These feelings stimulate people to set a goal of overcoming
their inferiority.
• People who see themselves as having more than their share of
physical deficiencies or who experience a pampered or neglected
style of life overcompensate for these deficiencies and are
likely to have exaggerated feelings of inferiority, strive for
personal gain, and set unrealistically high goals.
• People with normal feelings of inferiority compensate for
these feelings by cooperating with others and developing a high
level of social interest.
• Social interest, or a deep concern for the welfare of other
people, is the sole criterion by which human actions should be
judged.
• The three major problems of life—neighborly love, work, and
sexual love—can only be solved through social interest.
• All behaviors, even those that appear to be incompatible, are
consistent with a person’s final goal.
• Human behavior is shaped neither by past events nor by
objective reality, but rather by people’s subjective perception
of a situation.
• Heredity and environment provide the building material of
personality, but people’s creative power is responsible for
their style of life.
• All people, but especially neurotics, make use of various
safeguarding tendencies—such as excuses, aggression, and
withdrawal—as conscious or unconscious attempts to protect
inflated feelings of superiority against public disgrace.
• The masculine protest—the belief that men are superior to
women—is a fiction that lies at the root of many neuroses, both
for men and for women.
• Adlerian therapy uses birth order, early recollections, and
dreams to foster courage, self-esteem, and social interest.
Ivan Pavlov
● There are four key terms: (a) unconditioned
stimulus, (b) unconditioned response, (c)
conditioned stimulus, and (d) conditioned
response. The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) leads
to the unconditioned response (UCR). The
connection between the UCS and the UCR is innate
and thus is not learned.
ERICH FROMM
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS (both optimistic and
pessimistic
Key Terms and Concepts
• People have been torn away from their prehistoric union with
nature and also with one another, yet they have the power of
reasoning, foresight, and imagination.
• Self-awareness contributes to feelings of loneliness,
isolation, and homelessness.
• To escape these feelings, people strive to become united with
others and with nature.
• Only the uniquely human needs of relatedness, transcendence,
rootedness, sense of identity, and a frame of orientation can
move people toward a reunion with the natural world.
• A sense of relatedness drives people to unite with another
person through submission, power, or love.
• Transcendence is the need for people to rise above their
passive existence and create or destroy life.
• Rootedness is the need for a consistent structure in people’s
lives.
• A sense of identity gives a person a feeling of “I” or “me.”
• A frame of orientation is a consistent way of looking at the
world.
• Basic anxiety is a sense of being alone in the world.
• To relieve basic anxiety, people use various mechanisms of
escape, especially authoritarianism, destructiveness, and
conformity.
• Psychologically healthy people acquire the syndrome of growth,
which includes (1) positive freedom, or the spontaneous activity
of a whole, integrated personality; (2) biophilia, or a
passionate love of life; and (3) love for fellow humans.
• Other people, however, live nonproductively and acquire things
through passively receiving things, exploiting others, hoarding
things, and marketing or exchanging things, including
themselves.
• Some extremely sick people are motivated by the syndrome of
decay, which includes (1) necrophilia, or the love of death; (2)
malignant narcissism, or infatuation with self; and (3)
incestuous symbiosis, or the tendency to remain bound to a
mothering person or her equivalents.
• The goal of Fromm’s psychotherapy is to establish a union with
patients so that they can become reunited with the world.
CARL JUNG
ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Key Terms and Concepts
• The personal unconscious is formed by the repressed
experiences of one particular individual and is the reservoir of
the complexes.
• Humans inherit a collective unconscious that helps shape many
of their attitudes, behaviors, and dreams.
• Archetypes are contents of the collective unconscious. Typical
archetypes include persona, shadow, anima, animus, great mother,
wise old man, hero, and self.
• The persona represents the side of personality that people
show to the rest of the world. Psychologically healthy people
recognize their persona but do not mistake it for the whole of
persona
• The anima is the feminine side of men and is responsible for
many of their irrational moods and feelings.
• The animus, the masculine side of women, is responsible for
irrational thinking and illogical opinions in women.
• The great mother is the archetype of fertility and
destruction.
• The wise old man archetype is the intelligent but deceptive
voice of accumulated experience.
• The hero is the unconscious image of a person who conquers an
evil foe but who also has a tragic flaw.
• The self is the archetype of completeness, wholeness, and
perfection.
• The two attitudes of introversion and extraversion can combine
with any one or more of the four functions—thinking, feeling,
sensation, and intuition—to produce eight basic types.
• A healthy middle life and old age depend on proper solutions
to the problems of childhood and youth.
• Jungian therapists use dream analysis and active imagination
to discover the contents of patients’ collective unconsciouslity
ALBERT BANDURA
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
Key Terms and Concepts
• Observational learning allows people to learn without
performing a behavior.
• Observational learning requires (1) attention to a model, (2)
organization and retention of observations, (3) behavioral
production, and (4) motivation to perform the modeled behavior.
• Enactive learning takes place when our responses produce
consequences.
• Human functioning is a product of the mutual interaction of
environmental events, behavior, and personal factors, a model
called triadic reciprocal causation.
• Chance encounters and fortuitous events are two important
environmental factors that influence people’s lives in unplanned
and unexpected ways.
• Human agency means that people can and do exercise a measure
of control over their lives.
• Self-efficacy refers to people’s belief that they are capable
of performing those behaviors that can produce desired outcomes
in a particular situation.
• Proxy agency occurs when people have the capacity to rely on
others for goods and services.
• Collective efficacy refers to the confidence that groups of
people have that their combined efforts will produce social
change.
• People have some capacity for self-regulation, and they use
both external and internal factors to self-regulate.
• External factors provide us with standards for evaluating our
behavior as well as external reinforcement in the form of
rewards received from others.
• Internal factors in self-regulation include (1)
self-observation, (2) judgmental processes, and (3)
self-reaction.
• Through selective activation and disengagement of internal
control, people can separate themselves from the injurious
consequences of their actions.
• Four principal techniques of selective activation and
disengagement of internal control are (1) redefining behavior,
(2) displacing or diffusing responsibility, (3) disregarding or
distorting the consequences of behavior, and (4) dehumanizing or
blaming the victims for their injuries.
• Dysfunctional behaviors, such as depression, phobias, and
aggression, are acquired through the reciprocal interaction of
environment, personal factors, and behavior.
• Social cognitive therapy emphasizes cognitive mediation,
especially perceived self-efficacy
● Albert Bandura's social learning theory suggests that
observation and modeling play a primary role in how and why
people learn. Bandura's theory goes beyond the perception
of learning being the result of direct experience with the
environment
● Albert Bandura As the creator of the concept of social
learning theory, Bandura proposes five essential steps in
order for the learning to take place: observation,
attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.
https://www.wgu.edu/blog/guide-social-learning-theory-education2
005.html#openSubscriberModal
B.F. SKINNER
BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS
Key Terms and Concepts
• Skinner’s theory of personality is based largely on his
behavioral analysis of rats and pigeons.
• Although internal states such as thinking and feeling exist,
they cannot be used as explanations of behavior; only overt
behavior can be studied by the scientist.
• Human behavior is shaped by three forces: (1) the individual’s
personal history of reinforcement, (2) natural selection, and
(3) the evolution of cultural practices.
• Operant conditioning is a process of changing behavior in
which reinforcement (or punishment) is contingent on the
occurrence of a particular behavior.
• A positive reinforcer is any event that, when added to a
situation, increases the probability that a given behavior will
occur.
• A negative reinforcer is any aversive stimulus that, when
removed from the environment, increases the probability of a
given behavior.
• Skinner also identified two types of punishment: The first is
the presentation of an aversive stimulus, and the second
involves the removal of a positive stimulus.
• Reinforcement can be either continuous or intermittent, but
intermittent schedules are more efficient.
• The four principal intermittent schedules of reinforcement are
the fixedratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and
variable-interval.
• Social control is achieved through (1) operant conditioning,
(2) describing the contingencies of reinforcement, (3) depriving
or satiating a person, or (4) physically restraining an
individual.
• People can also control their own behavior through
self-control, but all control ultimately rests with the
environment and not free will.
• Unhealthy behaviors are learned in the same way as all other
behaviors, that is, mostly through operant conditioning.
• To change unhealthy behaviors, behavior therapists use a
variety of behavior modification techniques, all of which are
based on the principles of operant conditioning.
● For Skinner, personality is behavior and behavior is
determined by principles of. operant conditioning which
focuses on the relationship of behavior to the environment
● Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function
of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the
result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that
occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence
such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math
problem.
● The basic concept behind operant conditioning is that a
stimulus (antecedent) leads to a behavior, which then leads
to a consequence. This form of conditioning involves
reinforcers, both positive and negative, as well as
primary, secondary, and generalized.
● https://allpsych.com/psychology101/learning/reinforcement/#
:~:text=There%20are%20four%20types%20of,negative%2C%20punis
hment%2C%20and%20extinction
ABRAHAM MASLOW
HOLOSTIC DYNAMIC THEORY
Key Terms and Concepts
• Maslow assumed that motivation affects the whole person; it is
complete, often unconscious, continual, and applicable to all
people.
• People are motivated by four dimensions of needs: conative
(willful striving), aesthetic (the need for order and beauty),
cognitive (the need for curiosity and knowledge), and neurotic
(an unproductive pattern of relating to other people).
• The conative needs can be arranged on a hierarchy, meaning
that one need must be relatively satisfied before the next need
can become active.
• The five conative needs are physiological, safety, love and
belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization.
• Occasionally, needs on the hierarchy can be reversed, and they
are frequently unconscious.
• Coping behavior is motivated and is directed toward the
satisfaction of basic needs.
• Expressive behavior has a cause but is not motivated; it is
simply one’s way of expressing oneself.
• Conative needs, including self-actualization, are instinctoid;
that is, their deprivation leads to pathology.
• The frustration of self-actualization needs results in
metapathology and a rejection of the B-values.
• Acceptance of the B-values (truth, beauty, humor, etc.) is the
criterion that separates self-actualizing people from those who
are merely healthy but mired at the level of esteem.
• The characteristics of self-actualizers include (1) a more
efficient perception of reality; (2) acceptance of self, others,
and nature; (3) spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness; (4) a
problem-centered approach to life; (5) the need for privacy; (6)
autonomy; (7) freshness of appreciation; (8) peak experiences;
(9) social interest; (10) profound interpersonal relations; (11)
a democratic attitude; (12) the ability to discriminate means
from ends; (13) a philosophical sense of humor; (14)
creativeness; and (15) resistance to enculturation.
• In his philosophy of science, Maslow argued for a Taoistic
attitude, one that is noninterfering, passive, receptive, and
subjective.
• The Personal Orientation Inventory (POI, 1974) (developed by
Everett Shortstorm) is a standardized test designed to measure
self-actualizing values and behavior.
• The Jonah complex is the fear of being or doing one’s best.
• Psychotherapy should be directed at the need level currently
being thwarted, in most cases love and belongingness needs.
CARL ROGERS
PERSON-CENTERED THEORY
Key Terms and Concepts
• The formative tendency states that all matter, both organic
and inorganic, tends to evolve from simple to more complex
forms.
• Humans and other animals possess an actualization tendency:
that is, the predisposition to move toward completion or
fulfillment.
• Self-actualization develops after people evolve a self-system
and refers to the tendency to move toward becoming a fully
functional person.
• An individual becomes a person by making contact with a
caregiver whose positive regard for that individual fosters
positive self-regard.
• Barriers to psychological growth exist when a person
experiences conditions of worth, incongruence, defensiveness,
and disorganization.
• Conditions of worth and external evaluation lead to
vulnerability, anxiety, and threat and prevent people from
experiencing unconditional positive regard.
• Incongruence develops when the organismic self and the
perceived self do not match.
• When the organismic self and perceived self are incongruent,
people will become defensive and use distortion and denial as
attempts to reduce incongruence.
• People become disorganized whenever distortion and denial are
insufficient to block out incongruence.
• Vulnerable people are unaware of their incongruence and are
likely to become anxious, threatened, and defensive.
• When vulnerable people come in contact with a therapist who is
congruent and who has unconditional positive regard and empathy,
the process of personality change begins.
• This process of therapeutic personality change ranges from
extreme defensiveness, or an unwillingness to talk about self,
to a final stage in which clients become their own therapists
and are able to continue psychological growth outside the
therapeutic setting.
• The basic outcomes of client-centered counseling are congruent
clients who are open to experiences and who have no need to be
defensive.
• Theoretically, successful clients will become persons of
tomorrow, or fully functioning persons.
ROLLO MAY
EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Key Terms and Concepts
• A basic tenet of existentialism is that existence precedes
essence, meaning that what people do is more important than what
they are.
• A second assumption is that people are both subjective and
objective: that is, they are thinking as well as acting beings.
• People are motivated to search for answers to important
questions regarding the meaning of life.
• People have an equal degree of both freedom and
responsibility.
• The unity of people and their phenomenological world is
expressed by the term Dasein, or being-in-the-world.
• Three modes of being-in-the-world are Umwelt, one’s
relationship with the world of things; Mitwelt, one’s
relationship with the world of people; and Eigenwelt, one’s
relationship with oneself.
• Nonbeing, or nothingness, is an awareness of the possibility
of one’s not being, through death or loss of awareness.
• People experience anxiety when they are aware of the
possibility of their nonbeing as well as when they are aware
that they are free to choose.
• Normal anxiety is experienced by everyone and is proportionate
to the threat.
• Neurotic anxiety is disproportionate to the threat, involves
repression, and is handled in a self-defeating manner.
• People experience guilt as a result of their (1) separation
from the natural world, (2) inability to judge the needs of
others, and (3) denial of their own potential.
• Intentionality is the underlying structure that gives meaning
to experience and allows people to make decisions about the
future.
• Love means taking delight in the presence of the other person
and affirming that person’s value as much as one’s own.
• Sex, a basic form of love, is a biological function that seeks
satisfaction through the release of sexual tension.
• Eros, a higher form of love, seeks an enduring union with a
loved one.
• Philia is the form of love that seeks a nonsexual friendship
with another person.
• Agape, the highest form of love, is altruistic and seeks
nothing from the other person.
• Freedom is gained through confrontation with one’s destiny and
through an understanding that death or nonbeing is a possibility
at any moment.
• Existential freedom is freedom of action, freedom to move
about, to pursue tangible goals.
• Essential freedom is freedom of being, freedom to think, to
plan, to hope.
• Cultural myths are belief systems, both conscious and
unconscious, that provide explanations for personal and social
problems.
ERIK ERIKSON
Post-Freudian Theory
Key Terms and Concepts
• Erikson’s stages of development rest on an epigenetic
principle, meaning that each component proceeds in a
step-by-step fashion with later growth building on earlier
development.
• During every stage, people experience an interaction of
opposing syntonic and dystonic attitudes, which leads to a
conflict, or psychosocial crisis.
• Resolution of this crisis produces a basic strength and
enables a person to move to the next stage.
• Biological components lay a ground plan for each individual,
but a multiplicity of historical and cultural events also shapes
ego identity.
• Each basic strength has an underlying antipathy that becomes
the core pathology of that stage.
• The first stage of development is infancy, characterized by
the oral-sensory mode, the psychosocial crisis of basic trust
versus mistrust, the basic strength of hope, and the core
pathology of withdrawal.
• During early childhood, children experience the anal,
urethral, and muscular psychosexual mode; the psychosocial
conflict of autonomy versus shame and doubt; the basic strength
of will; and the core pathology of compulsion.
• During the play age, children experience genital-locomotor
psychosexual development and undergo a psychosocial crisis of
initiative versus guilt, with either the basic strength of
purpose or the core pathology of inhibition.
• School-age children are in a period of sexual latency but face
the psychosocial crisis of industry versus inferiority, which
produces either the basic strength of competence or the core
pathology of inertia.
• Adolescence, or puberty, is a crucial stage because a person’s
sense of identity should emerge from this period. However,
identity confusion may dominate the psychosocial crisis, thereby
postponing identity. Fidelity is the basic strength of
adolescence; role repudiation is its core pathology.
• Young adulthood, the time from about age 18 to 30, is
characterized by the psychosexual mode of genitality, the
psychosocial crisis of intimacy versus isolation, the basic
strength of love, and the core pathology of exclusivity.
• Adulthood is a time when people experience the psychosexual
mode of procreativity, the psychosocial crisis of generativity
versus stagnation, the basic strength of care, and the core
pathology of rejectivity.
• Old age is marked by the psychosexual mode of generalized
sensuality, the crisis of integrity versus despair, and the
basic strength of wisdom or the core pathology of disdain.
• Erikson used psychohistory (a combination of psychoanalysis
and history) to study the identity crises of Martin Luther,
Mahatma Gandhi, and others.
MELANIE KLEIN
OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY
Key Terms and Concepts
• Object relations theories assume that the mother-child
relationship during the first 4 or 5 months is the most critical
time for personality development.
• Klein believed that an important part of any relationship is
the internal psychic representations of early significant
objects, such as the mother’s breast or the father’s penis.
• Infants introject these psychic representations into their own
psychic structure and then project them onto an external object,
that is, another person. These internal pictures are not
accurate representations of the other person but are remnants of
earlier interpersonal experiences.
• The ego, which exists at birth, can sense both destructive and
loving forces, that is, both a nurturing and a frustrating
breast.
• To deal with the nurturing breast and the frustrating breast,
infants split these objects into good and bad while also
splitting their own ego, giving them a dual image of self.
• Klein believed that the superego comes into existence much
earlier than Freud had speculated and that it grows along with
the Oedipal process rather than being a product of it.
• During the early female Oedipus complex, the little girl
adopts a feminine position toward both parents. She has a
positive feeling both for her mother’s breasts and for her
father’s penis, which she believes will feed her with babies.
• Sometimes the little girl develops hostility toward her
mother, who she fears will retaliate against her and rob her of
her babies.
• With most girls, however, the female Oedipus complex is
resolved without any antagonism or jealousy toward their mother.
• The little boy also adopts a feminine position during the
early Oedipal years. At that time, he has no fear of being
castrated as punishment for his sexual feelings for his mother.
• Later, the boy projects his destructive drive onto his father,
who he fears will bite or castrate him.
• The male Oedipus complex is resolved when the boy establishes
good relations with both parents and feels comfortable about his
parents having sexual intercourse with one another.
Under MELANIE KLEIN we have:
Margaret Mahler: she mentioned about “PSYCHOLOGICAL BIRTH”
3 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND 4 SUB-STAGES
1. Normal Autism
2. Normal Symbiosis
3. Seperation-Individuation
- Differentation
- Practicing
- Rapprochement
- Libidinal Object Constancy (sub-stages to putangina)
John Bowlby: Attachment Theory
3 STAGES OF SEPERATION ANXIETY
1. PROTEST
2. DESPAIR
3. DETACHMENT
Heinz Kohut: “selfobjects(adult caregiver)”
*Both narcissistic self-images are necessary for healthy
personality development. Both, however, must change as the child
grows older. If they remain unaltered, they result in a
pathologically narcissistic adult personality. - Grandiosity
must changed into a realistic view of self. The idealized parent
image must grow into a realistic picture of the parents
Mary Ainsworth: Strange Situation- She developed a instrument
called “STRANGE SITUATION” to MEASURE the ATTACHEMENT STYLE of
the infant
THREE ATTACHMENT STYLE:
1. SECURE ATTACHMENT
2. ANXIOUS-RESISTANT ATTACHMENT
3. ANXIOUS-AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT
KAREN HORNEY
PSYCHOANALYTIC-SOCIAL THEORY
Key Terms and Concepts
• Horney insisted that social and cultural influences were more
important than biological ones.
• Children who lack warmth and affection fail to meet their
needs for safety and satisfaction.
• These feelings of isolation and helplessness trigger basic
anxiety, or feelings of isolation and helplessness in a
potentially hostile world.
• The inability of people to use different tactics in their
relationships with others generates basic conflict: that is, the
incompatible tendency to move toward, against, and away from
people.
• Horney called the tendencies to move toward, against, or away
from people the three neurotic trends.
• Healthy people solve their basic conflict by using all three
neurotic trends, whereas neurotics compulsively adopt only one
of these trends.
• The three neurotic trends (moving toward, against, or away
from people) are a combination of 10 neurotic trends that Horney
had earlier identified.
• Both healthy and neurotic people experience intrapsychic
conflicts that have become part of their belief system. The two
major intrapsychic conflicts are the idealized self-image and
self-hatred.
• The idealized self-image results in neurotics’ attempts to
build a godlike picture of themselves.
• Self-hatred is the tendency for neurotics to hate and despise
their real self.
• Any psychological differences between men and women are due to
cultural and social expectations and not to biology.
• The goal of Horneyian psychotherapy is to bring about growth
toward actualization of the real self.
SIGMUND FREUD
Key Terms and Concepts
• Freud identified three levels of mental life—unconscious,
preconscious, and conscious.
• Early childhood experiences that create high levels of anxiety
are repressed into the unconscious, where they may influence
behavior, emotions, and attitudes for years.
• Events that are not associated with anxiety but are merely
forgotten make up the contents of the preconscious.
• Conscious images are those in awareness at any given time.
• Freud recognized three provinces of the mind—id, ego, and
superego.
• The id is unconscious, chaotic, out of contact with reality,
and in service of the pleasure principle.
• The ego is the executive of personality, in contact with the
real world, and in service of the reality principle.
• The superego serves the moral and idealistic principles and
begins to form after the Oedipus complex is resolved.
• All motivation can be traced to sexual and aggressive drives.
Childhood behaviors related to sex and aggression are often
punished, which leads to either repression or anxiety.
• To protect itself against anxiety, the ego initiates various
defense mechanisms, the most basic of which is repression.
• Freud outlined three major stages of development—infancy,
latency, and a genital period—but he devoted most attention to
the infantile stage.
• The infantile stage is divided into three substages—oral,
anal, and phallic, the last of which is accompanied by the
Oedipus complex.
• During the simple Oedipal stage, a child desires sexual union
with one parent while harboring hostility for the other.
• Freud believed that dreams and Freudian slips are disguised
means of expressing unconscious impulses.
Kelly
Key Terms and Concepts
• Basic to Kelly’s theory is the idea of constructive
alternativism, or the notion that our present interpretations
are subject to change.
• Kelly’s basic postulate assumes that all psychological
processes are directed by the ways in which we anticipate
events. Eleven corollaries derive from and elaborate this one
fundamental postulate.
• The construction corollary assumes that people anticipate
future events according to their interpretations of recurrent
themes.
• The individuality corollary states that people have different
experiences and therefore construe events in different ways.
• The organization corollary holds that people organize their
personal constructs in a hierarchical system, with some
constructs in superordinate positions and others subordinate to
them. This organization allows people to minimize incompatible
constructs.
• Kelly’s dichotomy corollary presumes that all personal
constructs are dichotomous; that is, people construe events in
an either-or manner. ‘
• His choice corollary states that people choose the alternative
in a dichotomized construct that they see as extending their
range of future choices.
• The range corollary assumes that constructs are limited to a
particular range of convenience; that is, they are not relevant
to all situations.
• The experience corollary holds that people continually revise
their personal constructs as the result of experience.
• The modulation corollary maintains that some new experiences
do not lead to a revision of personal constructs because they
are too concrete or impermeable.
• The fragmentation corollary recognizes that people’s behavior
is sometimes inconsistent because their construct system can
readily admit incompatible elements.
• Kelly’s commonality corollary states that, to the extent that
we have had experiences similar to other people’s experiences,
our personal constructs tend to be similar to the construction
systems of those people.
• The sociality corollary states that people are able to
communicate with other people because they can construe other
people’s constructions. Not only do people observe the behavior
of another person but they also interpret what that behavior
means to that person.
• Kelly’s fixed-role therapy calls for clients to act out
predetermined roles continuously until their peripheral and core
roles change as significant others begin reacting differently to
them.
• The purpose of Kelly’s Rep test is to discover ways in which
people construe important people in their lives.
Critique of Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud)
● His theory of personality was strongly oriented towards
men, he lacked a complete understanding of the feminine
psyche.
● an area of criticism on Freud centers around his status as
a scientist
Critique of Individual Psychology (Alfred Adler)
● Like that of Freud, produced many concepts that do not
easily lend themselves to either verification or
falsification.
● It suffers from a lack of precise operational definitions.
● Individual psychology is somewhat philosophical, even
moralistic.
● The concept of creative power cannot be scientifically
studied.
● High on free choice and optimism, very low on causality
(personality shaped by past experiences), moderate on
unconscious influences, and high on social factors and the
uniqueness of individual
Critique of Humanistic Psychoanalysis (Erich Fromm)
● highly abstract model that was more philosophical than
scientific
● Fromm’s social, political, and historical perspective
provides both breadth and depth for understanding the human
condition, but the theory lacks precision.
● Fromm’s views are internally consistent in the sense that a
single theme runs throughout his writing. However the
theory lacks a structured taxonomy, a set of operationally
defined terms, and a clear limitation of a scope.
● Fromm was reluctant to abandon earlier concepts or to
relate them precisely to his later ideas; his theory lacks
simplicity and unity.
● The human species can be defined as the primate who emerged
at that point of evolution where instinctive determinism
had reached a minimum and the development of the brain a
maximum.
● Humanistic psychoanalysis is both pessimistic and
optimistic.
● a middle position on the dimension of free choice versus
determinism; their ability to reason enables people to take
an active part in their own fate
● He believed that people constantly strive for a frame of
orientation, a road map by which to plan their lives in the
future. Thus, favoring teleology slightly.
● Placing more emphasis on conscious motivation and
contending that self-awareness is one of the unique human
traits, yet, self-awareness is a mixed blessing and that
many people repress their basic character to avoid mounting
anxiety.
● Fromm placed somewhat more importance on the impact of
history, culture, and society than on biology. But he did
not overlook biological factors, defining humans as the
freaks of the universe.
● Humans are species sharing many of the same human needs,
but interpersonal experiences throughout people’s lives
give them some measure uniqueness.
Critique of Interpersonal Theory (Harry Stack Sullivan)
● What is presently known about human behavior has a
biological basis and does not easily fit into a theory
restricted to interpersonal relations.
● For him, similarities among people are much more important
than differences.
● Sullivan’s theory is neither optimistic nor pessimistic
(AVERAGE-MIDDLE). Interpersonal relations can transform a
person into either a healthy personality or marked by
anxiety and a rigid self-structure.
● very high on social influence (nature)
Critique of Psychoanalytic Social Theory (Karen Horney)
● The strength of Horney’s theory is her lucid portrayal of
the neurotic personality. Her comprehensive descriptions of
neurotic personalities provide an excellent framework for
understanding unhealthy people.
● A serious limitation to her theory is that her references
to the normal or healthy people are general and not
well-explicated. There was no clear picture of what
self-realization would be.
● -deterministic for neurotic individuals, but a healthy
person would have a large element of free choice somewhat
more optimistic than pessimistic, people possess inherent
curative powers that lead toward self-realization.
● a middle position on causality vs. teleology: childhood
experiences can block the movement toward self-realization
most people have limited awareness of their motives
● strongly emphasized social influences more than biological
ones
● it highlights similarities among people more than
uniqueness
Critique of Object Relations Theory (Melanie Klein)
● low on its ability to generate research
● Since it grew out of the orthodox psychoanalytic theory, it
suffers from some of the falsifications that confront
Freud’s theory.
● Klein used needlessly complex phrases and concepts to
express her theory.
● It has the ability to organize information about the
behavior of infants. Objects relations theory has
speculated on how humans gradually come to a sense of
identity.
● It is built on careful observations of the mother- child
relationship.
● Parents of young infants can learn the importance of a
warm, accepting, and nurturing caregiver.
● High on determinism, low on free choice can either be
pessimistic or optimistic tends to be more causal,
expectations of the future play a very minor role high on
unconscious determinants of behavior biology as more
important than environment in shaping personality in terms
of the concept of phylogenetic endowment and death instinct
the biologically based infantile stages lean more toward
social determinants of personality it tends toward
similarities.