Ancient English Literature:
a Historical Beowulf The use
of allusion may contribute to
the meaning of a literary
work.
Table of contents
01
Ancient English
Literature
03
02
Beowulf
04
The use of allusion Allusions in Beowulf
Ancient English
Literature:
Old English literature
also called Anglo-Saxon
literature, literature written in Old
English c. 650–c. 1100.
Beowulf
Beowulf is the oldest surviving
Germanic epic and the longest
Old English poem; it was likely
composed between 700 and
750.
Beowulf
Beowulf, heroic poem, the highest
achievement of Old English
literature and the earliest
European vernacular epic. The work
deals with events of the early 6th
century, and, while the date of
its composition is uncertain, some
scholars believe that it was written in
the 8th century. Although originally
untitled, the poem was later named
after the Scandinavian hero Beowulf,
whose exploits and character provide
its connecting theme. There is no
evidence of a historical Beowulf, but
some characters, sites, and events in
the poem can be historically verified.
The poem did not appear in print until
1815. It is preserved in a single
manuscript that dates to circa 1000
and is known as the Beowulf
manuscript (Cotton MS Vitellius A XV)
Beowulf
Beowulf preparing to cut off the head of the monster Grendel, illustration
from Hero-Myths & Legends of the British Race, 1910.
Historia/Shutterstock.com
The use of allusion
may contribute to
the meaning of a
literary work.
Allusions can give a deeper meaning
to a story by referring to another piece
of work that most are familiar with. If a
character within a story uses an
allusion (refers to another piece of
work), it can give deeper insight on
what kind of person they are.
Example: Grendel is referred to as the
son of Cain, a Biblical allusion.
Allusions
Biblical References
Cain and Abel (99-114, 1260-1268)
Mythological References
Sigemund the Dragon-Slayer (Note:
in Beowulf, the famous dragonslayer is called Sigemund, but in
Norse mythology Sigemund is just
the father of the famous dragonslayer, who is called Sigurd. If you're
curious to know more you can read
the Volsung Saga.) (873-914)
The Saga of Finn (1062-1158)
The Biblical allusions in Beowulf
The Biblical allusions in Beowulf can
be identified based on a knowledge
of the stories that are found in the
Bible. Study the definition of an
allusion and examples such as Cain
and Abel, Pagan worship, the flood,
and the execution of Christ.
Allusions in Beowulf
The Scyldings
One of the most notable of these allusions is that of the Scyldings. A prominent family not only in Beowulf,
their stories also appear in Snorra Edda (Snorri Sturluson’s Prose Edda) and Hrólfs saga kraka (The Saga of
King Hrolf Kraki). In the Edda, Skjöldur (Scyld Scefing), the founder of the Skjöldungar (Scyldings), is
portrayed as a descendant of the god Óðinn himself. The legends of his descendants are recorded in
Beowulf and Hrólfs saga kraka. Being slightly different in perspective to Beowulf, the focus of Hrólfs saga
kraka is more so on Hroðgar’s nephew Hrólfur than on himself. Both narratives however include a troll-like
being terrorising the halls at nightfall and a hero that comes and eradicates such threats.
Eotenas ond ylfe and gígantas
J.R.R. Tolkien notes in lines 112-113 the author’s use of two culturally different etymological sources to describe the
race of Grendel and the descendants of Cain. On the one hand, Tolkien observes the use of gígantas in line 113
as a word borrowed from the Latin version of the Bible. On the other hand, he marks the words eotenas and ylfe
in line 112 as distinctly Norse, coming from the words jötnar (giants) and álfar (elves). These words not only
depict the author’s blending of pagan and Christian elements into the story of Beowulf, but as cultural allusions
they furthermore offer a twofold perspective on Grendel’s background as a fiend – that is, he not only is an
enemy of the Christians, being a descendant of Cain and the giants, but also at the sight of the pagan heroes
he is considered an outcast of the Norse gods and humanity.
Cain and Abel
In the Bible, Cain and Abel were the sons of Adam and Eve. Cain
murdered his brother in an act of passion and was punished by God;
he was marked and suffered to toil the ground, though it would no
longer produce crops for him. Cain was essentially shunned from
society for committing this horrible crime.
In Beowulf, we are introduced to Grendel, a monster who is
murdering Hrothgar's men for sport. When the author describes
Grendel, he describes him as a monster and relates him to Cain:
'Till the monster stirred, that demon, that fiend Grendel who haunted
the moors, the wild marshes, and made his home in a hell. Not hell
but hell on earth. He was spawned in that slime of Cain, murderous
creatures banished by God, punished forever for the crime of Abel's
death.'
Like Cain, Grendel has committed horrendous crimes and is shunned
from society as punishment. The difference between the two is that
Grendel is committing these crimes because he likes to, whereas
Cain committed his crime in a fit of passion. This first allusion shows
us that the Christian author was not a fan of Cain and his crimes.
Wæls and Sigemund
The bard in Hroðgar’s hall recounts the story of Sigemund the
dragon-slayer in lines 883-915 as words of praise, encouragement,
and admonition to Beowulf. Similar narratives can be found in the
Snorra Edda and the Völsunga Saga where Völsungur’s (Wæl’s)
descendant Sigurður slays a dragon and takes possession of a
treasure hoard. Placing these narratives in the context of Beowulf
allows its author to portray ironies foreshadowing Beowulf’s death,
but also comparative praise, as Sigurður is and will ever be
remembered in Northern legend as Fáfnisbani – the slayer of the
dragon Fáfnir – after his death.
Thus allusions such as these allow us to understand more
comprehensively the story of Beowulf. They give the text particular
shades which reflect dramatic ironies that are not always obvious
when the allusions are missed. And although many of these allusions
and possibly the text itself are rendered obscure to us as modern
audiences, their importance to the Anglo-Saxon audience as
antiquarian reflections and contemporary innovations should never
be understated, wont as the Anglo-Saxons would have been to do so.
Works
Consulted:
Heaney, Seamus. Beowulf. New York: W.W.
Norton & Company, 2000. Print.
Tolkien, J.R.R. Beowulf: A Translation and
Commentary. Ed. Christopher Tolkien.
London: Harper Collins Publishers, 2014.
Print.
— . The Monsters and the Critics and Other
Essays. Ed. Christopher Tolkien. London:
George Allen & Unwin Publishers, 1983.
Thanks!