LATER
BEHAVIORISM
Edwin Guthrie
● Guthrie was born in Lincoln, Nebraska on Jan.
9, 1886
● He received his PhD in philosophy from the
University of Pennsylvania (1912), and joined
University of Washington (1918) as an assistant
professor
● Published Psychology of Learning (1935).
● Collaborated with Horton (1936 -39) on
stereotypical behavior of cats in a puzzle box.
● Revised The Psychology of Learning (1952)
● Received a gold medal form American
Psychological Foundation (1958).
Law of
Contiguity
● A combination of stimuli which
accompany a movement will on its
recurrence, will be followed by that
movement.
● Later, Guthrie revised the Law of
Contiguity to state “What is being
noticed becomes a signal for what is
being done”
3
One Trial
Learning
● A stimulus pattern gains its full
associative
strength
on
the
occasion of its first paring with a
response
Aristotle (Repetitive Trials)
Guthrie (One Trial)
S-R
S-R
S-R
S-R
S-R
Strong Association
Strong Association
Learn to stop
the car when
encounter
a
stop sign
WHY DOES PRACTICE APPEAR TO IMPROVE
PERFORMANCE?
Movement
- Pattern of motor or glandular responses.
- are minute responses made by the
muscles
that
get
associated
with
impinging stimuli. Movements are learnt
responses.
Acts
- Was a movement or series of movements
that brought about some end result.
- are a conglomerate of a number of learnt
movements.
- are learnt behaviors, like learning to press
keys on a keyboard.
Skills
- are made up of many acts that are
repeated
(practice)
to
develop
performance proficiency. Fast typing is a
skill.
Forgetting
● Like one-trial learning, forgetting
also occurs in just one trial. In the
presence of a stimulus pattern
when an old movement is replaced
by new movement forgetting takes
place.
● For Guthrie, all forgetting involves
new learning. Forgetting occurs
only if an existing S–R association is
interfered with in some way.
●
Breaking
Habits
To break habits determine the cues
(pattern of stimuli) that initiate the
undesired habit. Replace the undesired
habit with a desired habit in the
presence of those cues.
1. Threshold Method
2. Fatigue Method
3. Incompatible Response
Method
8
● Also known as Tolerance Method
Threshold
Method
● This method involves presenting the
stimulus that has been associated
with the movements in such a
manner that the response will not
occur. Thus, the stimulus presented is
so weak that it does not cause the
response to occur.
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● Also known as Exhaustion Method
Fatigue
Method
● The
stimulus
is
presented
so
frequently that the response is
exhausted, allowing for new alternate
response.
10
Incompatible
Response
Method
● Stimuli for the undesirable response
are presented along with other
stimuli that are incompatible with
the undesirable response.
11
Side
Tracking
Habits
● Achieved by avoiding all the cues
that elicit all the aspects of the
undesirable habit.
● This involves leaving the situations in
which the habits are most likely to
occur.
12
● Similar to motivation
Punishment
● The effectiveness of punishment is
determined not by the pain it
causes but by what it causes the
organism to do in the presence of
stimuli that elicit undesirable
behavior.
13
Motivation
● It increased the number and vigor
movements that could achieve
associative connections with
stimuli.
14
Reward
● was given in a following series of acts,
and that reward removed the
organism from the stimuli that acted
just prior to it.
15
Clark Leonard Hull
● Born Mar. 20, 1884 Susquehanna,
Pennsylvania.
● Belonged
to
poor
household.
Contracted polio at 24.
● Completed his PhD (1918) from
University
of
Wisconsin.
Studied
Aptitudes and hypnosis.
● Provoked
by
Pavlov
to
study
conditioning.
● Wrote Principles of Behavior (1943), and
A Behavior System (1952).
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● A systematic deductive derivation of the
secondary principles of observable
phenomena from a relatively small
number of primary postulates.
Hypothetico Deductive
Theory
● Uses
intervening
variables
as
hypothesized physiological processes, to
explain behavior.
● Hull formulated 16 (1943) postulates (18
postulates, 1951) and 12 corollaries.
17
Hypothetico Deductive
Theory
● a biological need creates a drive in
the organism, and the diminution of
this drive constitutes reinforcement
●
Hull defines reinforcement as drive
reduction as opposed to “satisfying
state of affairs”.
18
As the association
between stimulus
and the response
strengthens, Hull
says
that
the
“habit” of giving
that response to
that
stimulus
increases.
19
● probability of a learned response.
Reaction
Potential
20
J. R. Kantor
● received his Ph.D. at the University of
Chicago in 1917.
● became a professor at Indiana University
for 39 years.
● biggest contributions to psychology was
his
development
of
naturalistic
viewpoints in psychology.
● Principles of Psychology (1924-1926), An
outline of a Social Psychology (1929), A
Survey of the Science Psychology (1933),
Problems of Physiological Psychology
(1947), and Interbehavioral Psychology
(1958).
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Interbehavioral
Psychology
● Kantor feels that other theories of a
behavioristic sort have placed too much
emphasis on studying the responses of
the organism and have neglected the
equal importance of the stimulus.
● For Kantor, the subject matter
psychology is the interactions
organism and stimulus object.
of
of
22
●
RB - Reactional
Biography
●
SE - Stimulus
Evolution
●
M - Media of
Contact
●
HInterbehavior
History
23
Stimulus
object has a
certain
functions.
●
Universal Stimulus Functions
- are based on the natural properties of the
objects themselves.
- they are universal because they serve the
same function for all members of a given
species.
●
Individual Stimulus Functions
- are more unique and particular to a person.
- it will depend on the previous contacts or
interactions a person has had with that object.
●
Cultural Stimulus Functions
- are identified in such a way that they call out
similar reactions in a group of people.
- they are not universal, but may be shared by a
community of individuals.
24
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
● Born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania in
1904,.
● While in college, Skinner wanted to be
a writer, but after having little success
in this endeavor, he turned to
psychology.
● After earning a PhD from Harvard, he
taught at the Universities of Minnesota
and Indiana before returning to
Harvard, where he remained until his
death in 1990.
25
Operant
Conditioning
● It is the use of consequence/s to form or
modify the occurrence of behavior.
26
B.F. Skinner devised a box which is
called “SKINNER’S BOX”. In the box,
there is push a button and food
pellets inside a food dispenser. Then,
he put hungry rat inside the box and
since its hungry-the rat was restless
and was moving around the box.
Accidentally, the rat pushed the
button, then food pellet appears
from the food dispenser. And since,
the rat was hungry he repeatedly
push the button to get food pellets.
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Four
Procedures of
Operant
Conditioning
1. Positive reinforcement- it occurs when
the behavior is followed by a favorable
stimulus.
2. Negative reinforcement- it occurs when
the behavior is followed by the removal of
aversive/ unfavorable stimulus.
3. Positive punishment- it occurs when
the behavior is followed by unfavorable/
aversive stimulus.
4. Negative punishment- it occurs when
the behavior is followed by the removal of
favorable stimulus.
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● A reinforcement schedule is simply a rule that
states under what conditions a reinforcer will be
delivered. There are two major schedules of
reinforcement.
Schedules
of
Reinforcement
A.
Continuous
(CRF)occurs
when
reinforcement is given after every single desired
behavior.
B.
Intermittent
(INT)occurs
when
reinforcement is given after some behavior but
never after each one.
29
Intermittent
1. Fixed Ratio- in this schedule, a fixed number
of responses must be made before the
reward is administered.
2. Variable Ratio- the number of responses
determines the delivery of reinforcement;
but the ratio changes from reinforcement to
reinforcement.
3. Fixed Interval- in this schedule, the
reinforcement will be delivered after a
specified passage of time.
4. Variable Interval- in this schedule, the length
of time is varied or unspecified before the
delivery of the reinforcement.
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● sometimes called secondary reinforcers
Conditioned
Reinforcers
● are those environmental stimuli that are
not by nature satisfying but become so
because they are associated with such
unlearned or primary reinforcers as food,
water, sex, or physical comfort.
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Superstitious
Behavior
● the
behavior
develops
accidentally reinforced.
by
being
32
Behavior
Modification
● It involves shaping and selective use of
positive
reinforcement
(primary
or
secondary) , as well as extinction.
33
Albert Bandura
● Born in Canada in 1925, but he has spent his
entire professional life in the United States.
● He completed a PhD in clinical psychology
at the University of Iowa in 1951 and since
then has worked almost entirely at Stanford
University, where he continues to be an
active researcher and speaker.
34
Social
Cognitive
Theory
● Bandura takes a broad view of
learning, believing that people learn
through observing others and by
attending to the consequences of their
own actions. Although he believes
that reinforcement aids learning, he
contends that people can learn in the
absence of reinforcement and even of
a response.
35
● Bandura believes that observation allows
people to learn without performing any
behavior.
Observational
Learning
Modeling
- the tendency of individuals to intake the
behaviors they observe in others.
ex. bobo doll
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Vicarious
Learning
● All behavior is followed by some
consequence,
but
whether
that
consequence reinforces the behavior
depends on the person's cognitive
evaluation of the situation.
37
Self
regulation
● Capacity to regulate the behaviors unlike
animals..
38
Self Efficacy
● The belief in your ability to perform a
certain task or function
- mastery experience
- physical and emotional states
- social modeling
- social persuasion
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