HCC – BIOLOGY 1406: Biology I
Instructor: Evel yn I. Milian
Study Guide for Exam # 2 – Chapters 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10
* NOTE: This is just a guide. It is not a comprehensive list of what may be on the test.
*** The following guidelines apply to all BIOL 1406 tests and quizzes. Remember to use your
Course Syllabus throughout the term as a guide to help you be successful! ***
* Studying tips: For every test, including lab tests and the final exam, you should start studying early. If you
start studying one or two days before a test, you will feel overwhelmed and you will be under too much stress.
Study every day using your textbook, class notes and any other resources available. *** Study the figures and
tables discussed in class as well as those that have not been discussed in detail as they might help you understand
the concepts. Study with a friend and quiz each other. It is essential for you to be able to recognize, understand and
apply the concepts, and use the scientific vocabulary learned in class.
ADDITIONAL NOTE: Because of the complexity of these topics, this study guide is more detailed than usual and was
prepared to help you focus on the most important aspects of each topic. Again, please keep in mind that the Study Guide is
not intended to represent the actual exam! I recommend that you study proactively, going beyond my PowerPoint slides and
what is discussed in class to grasp and understand clearly the concepts. Students are expected to study from their textbooks.
Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell
1. Common features of all cells (order, evolution, metabolism, etc.)
2. Microscopy
a. Robert Hooke, Anton van Leeuwenhoek
b. Wavelength, magnification, resolution, and contrast
c. Main units of measurement in microscopy: micrometer (µm) and nanometer (nm)
d. Compound Light Microscope: its characteristics, parts and their functions, and how to use it properly.
e. Electron Microscopes: general characteristics; comparison with the light microscope.
3. Prokaryotic versus eukaryotic cells or organisms – their main characteristics; understand the differences
between them
4. Cellular structures and organelles – understand their main function(s) and characteristics (as discussed)
 Plasma membrane, cytoplasm and cytosol, nucleus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus
(Golgi complex), lysosomes, vacuoles, mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton, cilia and
flagella, pseudopods, cell wall, extracellular matrix, intercellular junctions
5. Plant cell versus animal cell – understand their similarities and differences
Chapter 7: Cell Membrane Structure and Function
1. Main characteristics of the plasma membrane (cell membrane) as discussed in class, including:
a. Functions of the plasma membrane
b. Fluid Mosaic Model: understand very well the structure of the plasma membrane, explained by this
model – proteins, phospholipid bilayer (molecules in it, hydrophilic “heads”, hydrophobic “tails”, etc.).
* You must be able to recognize and describe this model.
c. Fluidity and permeability of the plasma membrane, electrochemical gradient
2. Membrane proteins: integral and peripheral proteins
3. Types of membrane proteins according to their functions: transport proteins, receptor proteins, etc.
4. Electrochemical gradient and its importance for the plasma membrane
5. Passive transport processes: diffusion (simple diffusion), facilitated diffusion, osmosis
6. Tonicity: isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic – understand these terms in relation to the cell and water
movement; understand what happens to a cell when it is submitted to each of these types of solutions.
7. Active transport: understand the difference(s) between active transport and passive transport.
8. Bulk transport in vesicles: endocytosis and exocytosis
612937598 – E. Milian
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HCC – BIOLOGY 1406: Biology I
Instructor: Evel yn I. Milian
Study Guide for Exam # 2 – Chapters 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10
Chapter 8: An Introduction to Metabolism
1. Metabolism, catabolism, and anabolism.
2. Forms of energy
a. Thermodynamics: first law and second law of thermodynamics.
b. Exergonic reactions and endergonic reactions.
3. ATP: its structure and importance, how it couples anabolic and catabolic pathways in metabolism.
4. Enzymes: understand them very well!
a. What is an enzyme and properties or characteristics of enzymes
b. Activation energy: with and without an enzyme or catalyst
c. Mechanism of action of an enzyme – sequential steps for how it works – study the figures!!!
d. Factors that affect and regulate enzyme activity and how they affect it, for example:
 Cofactors and coenzymes, temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration,
enzyme inhibitors (competitive and noncompetitive), allosteric regulation, feedback inhibition
Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy
1. Scientific definition of cellular respiration.
2. Carbohydrates: the main source of energy for cells, especially glucose; molecular structure of glucose.
3. Remember the overall chemical equation for the breakdown of glucose in aerobic cellular respiration and
that this is an exergonic process, releasing energy.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 36 ADP + 36 Pi 
glucose
oxygen
6 CO2
carbon dioxide
+
6 H2O
+ 36 ATP
water
4. Generation of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation, oxidative phosphorylation, etc.
5. Redox reactions: What is oxidation? What is reduction?


You need to understand very well what occurs in a redox reaction. Understand how cellular respiration
involves redox reactions which ultimately lead to the release of energy used to synthesize ATP. The
electrons lose potential energy during their transfer to oxygen and energy is released.
Remember that in oxidation reactions, each electron travels with a proton—thus, as a hydrogen atom.
Released hydrogen atoms are transferred immediately by coenzymes to another compound.
6. Remember the two essential coenzymes of cellular respiration and how they work. Study the figures!!!
 NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) – Electrons from organic compounds are usually passed
first to NAD+, reducing it to NADH. NADH passes the electrons to an electron transport chain, which
conducts them to O2 in energy-releasing steps. The energy released is used to make ATP.
 FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide). It is sometimes used instead of NAD+.
7. Know and understand the stages of cellular respiration and in what part of the cell they occur, including the
structure of the mitochondrion. Get a general understanding of what happens in each of these stages,
especially what are the initial molecules or reactants, and what are the products.
a. Glycolysis: anaerobic reactions; in the cytoplasm of cells. You need to understand what are its two
major stages and overall what happens in each stage (energy investment and energy harvest stages).
You do not need to know the names of intermediate molecules formed. You need to understand the
inputs and outputs of glycolysis in terms of glucose, pyruvate, NADH and ATP.
b. Preparatory (prep) reaction (formation of acetyl CoA): Two molecules of pyruvate enter the
mitochondrion and are converted to acetyl-CoA, NADH is produced, and CO2 is released.
c. Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle, or tricarboxylic acid cycle): You do not need to know all the steps and
intermediate molecules. You need to understand the results of this process. Again, know the inputs and
outputs in terms of NADH, FADH2, CO2 and ATP, as discussed in class.
d. Electron transport chain (ETC): Where is the ETC located? Remember what molecules bring in the
electrons to the ETC from the previous stages. Know the types of electron carrier proteins that make
up the ETC (multiprotein complexes, flavoprotein, etc.). * Remember the sequence of transfer of
electrons: NADH to Complex I, etc., to the final electron acceptor (oxygen) and the formation of water;
and that these are oxidation-reduction reactions (redox). * Remember that this is aerobic respiration
because it requires oxygen as final electron acceptor.
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HCC – BIOLOGY 1406: Biology I
Instructor: Evel yn I. Milian
Study Guide for Exam # 2 – Chapters 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10
8. Chemiosmosis: How does it generate ATP? Electron transfer causes protein complexes to move
hydrogen ions (H+) from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, storing energy as an
electrochemical gradient, ATP synthase, etc.
9. How many ATPs are produced in each of the stages of cellular respiration from one molecule of glucose?
*** Study the tables and figures in the PowerPoint slides and in your textbook. Again, make sure that you
understand the inputs and outputs of each stage.
10. Fermentation: What is it? What are the two major types of fermentation? Again, remember the initial
molecules (reactants) and the final products in fermentation, in other words, inputs and outputs. Be able to
compare and contrast fermentation and cellular respiration (similarities and differences).
11. Metabolic pool: Catabolism produces molecules that can also be used for anabolism of other compounds.
When using other organic molecules as energy sources, cells usually first convert the molecules to glucose
or other compounds that enter the pathways of glucose metabolism. Proteins are broken down to amino
acids, and fats are broken down to fatty acids and glycerol. Then these molecules are shuttled into the
catabolic and anabolic pathways.
Chapter 10: Photosynthesis
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Scientific definition of photosynthesis and its importance for ecosystems and humans.
What kinds of organisms are photosynthesizers?
Autotrophs (producers), heterotrophs (consumers), and decomposers.
The chloroplast, the site of photosynthesis in plants; know its structure: stroma, thylakoid membrane, etc.
Chemical equation that summarizes photosynthesis. You need to know very well the reactants and the
products of photosynthesis.
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Light energy (and enzymes)  C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Know the two major stages of photosynthesis (light-dependent and light-independent reactions or Calvin
cycle) and what major events occur in each (what is produced in each of the two stages, etc.).
Properties of light and photosynthetic pigments:
 The shorter the wavelength of light, the higher its energy.
 Photosynthetic pigments: chlorophylls, carotenoids
The two major stages of photosynthesis and their main events, especially what is produced in each stage.
a. Light-dependent reactions in the thylakoids:
 Their main purpose is generation of ATP and NADPH.
 Thylakoids; role of photosystems I and II (light-capturing units); reaction center; light-harvesting
complexes (proteins and pigments); chlorophyll; electron transport chain, etc.
 Understand in summary the three processes summarized in class (photosystem II generates ATP,
photosystem I generates NADPH, splitting water maintains the flow of electrons, etc. Notice that
ATP is produced in the chloroplast in a very similar way as it is made in the mitochondrion during
cellular respiration.
b. Light-independent reactions (Calvin-Benson cycle) in the stroma:
 Their main purpose is the synthesis of carbohydrate (from CO2 and H2O; using the ATP and
NADPH that were produced in the light reactions).
 Remember that the Calvin cycle is anabolic, building sugar (carbohydrate) from smaller molecules
and consuming energy.
 Summary of the Calvin cycle reactions and final products: carbon fixation (CO2 uptake), synthesis
of G3P (CO2 reduction), and regeneration of RuBP, etc.
Understand the relationship between the light-dependent and light-independent reactions.
Understand the relationship between photosynthesis and cellular respiration; be able to compare them.
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