al-Qaeda
Ontogeny of the prototypic
RIF terrorist organization
Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
University at Buffalo
www.PsychologyofTerrorism.com
• Designated name:
International Front for Jihad against the
Jews and Crusaders
• Familiar name: al-Qaeda (“The Base”)
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
• Radical Islamic fundamentalist (RIF)
terrorist organizations did not begin with
and will not end with al-Qaeda
• Evolved from earlier organizations
• Morphed into ‘movement’
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
Evolution
• Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt
• Egyptian Islamic Jihad
• Maktab Khadamat al-Mujahidin al-Arab
(MAK)
• International Front for Jihad against the
Jews and Crusaders—al-Qaeda
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt
• Formed in 1928 by Hassan al Banna
(1906-1949)
• Anti-colonial advocating expulsion of
British influences in Egypt
• Strong fundamentalist orientation
• Generally nonviolent except for the
“secret apparatus”
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
Egyptian Islamic Jihad
• Formed in the 1970s by militant faction of
the Muslim Brotherhood
• Advocated terrorist tactics to achieve
goals including formation of Islamic state
• Spawned parallel organizations in other
Muslim countries
• Ayman al-Zawahiri assumed control in
the 1980s
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt vs.
Egyptian Islamic Jihad
• Muslim Brotherhood
• Primary objective:
Muslim unity and expulsion
of foreign influences
(considerable RIF
elements)
• fundamentalism a
secondary objective
• Generally nonviolent
approach to change
• Egyptian Islamic Jihad
• Primary objective:
expulsion of foreign
influences and
establishment of an
Islamic state (RIF core)
• fundamentalism a
primary objective
• Generally violent
approach to change
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
Maktab Khadamat al-Mujahidin
al-Arab (MAK)
• Formed in the 1980s by Osama bin
Laden and Abdullah al-Azzam to recruit
and train foreign fighters to combat the
Soviet invasion in Afghanistan
• Encouraged and indirectly supported by
the U.S. during the Cold War
• Had strong fundamentalists elements with
a desire to influence the social-political
system of post-war Afghanistan
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
MAK Split
• Conflicting agendas after Soviet
withdrawal from Afghanistan
• Protection of Muslim populations in
troubled spots throughout the world
(Azzam objective)
• Overthrow of despotic Arab regimens,
especially Egypt and Saudi Arabia (bin
Laden objective)
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
MAK Merger with Egyptian
Islamic Jihad Leadership
• Azzam was assassinated in 1989 leaving
bin Laden in control
• Zawahiri functionally merged Egyptian
Islamic Jihad with former MAK members
• Al-Qaeda emerges
• bin Laden—financial aspects
• Zawahiri—ideological and operational
aspects
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
Conflict with bin Laden Escalates
• Offers to raise a mujahidin army to defend Saudi Arabia from a
potential invasion from Iraq in 1990
• Saudi Arabia declines his offer opting instead to accept the
assistance of the U.S. and allow American troops (including
women soldiers) in Saudi Arabia
• Moves to Sudan by invitation of the Sudanese government in
1991
• Supports several small to medium attacks against Western
interests
• Moves to Afghanistan in 1996 by invitation of the Taliban
• Cruise missiles fired at al-Qaeda training camp in Afghanistan to
kill bin Laden in 1998
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
International Front for Jihad
against the Jews and Crusaders
“The ruling to kill the Americans and their
allies─civilians and military─is an
individual duty for every Muslim who can
do it in any country in which it is possible
to do it. ”
Fatwa issued by Osama bin Laden
& Ayman al-Zawahiri on 23 February 1998
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
September 11, 2001
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
The Iraq Connection
• Abu Musab al-Zarqawi is believed to have formed
Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad in Afghanistan during
the 1980s
• May have received some funds from al-Qaeda but operated
independently
• Original objective was to overthrow the Jordanian
government and establish an Islamic state
• Expanded urban guerilla warfare in Iraq to include
terrorist tactics also targeting Iraqis
• Officially merged with al-Qaeda 21 October 2004
(finally providing an al-Qaeda connection to Iraq)
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
New Role for al-Qaeda
• Various RIF factions aggressively compete
with each other for control, only uniting
provisionally to fight the common enemies
• Al-Qaeda evolved into the symbolic focus of a
‘united’ RIF terrorist movement
• As demonstrated by Zarqawi, Sadr, and
others, the leadership of al-Qaeda is not
essential for continued RIF terrorist activities
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
Parent Movement Less Militant
Than Offspring?
Essam al-Eryan and Abdel Moneim Abul Fotouh, senior
members of the Muslim Brotherhood’s Guidance Office in
Cairo urged an immediate release in a statement posted
18 January 2006.
“We ... appeal to the kidnappers of the American journalist Jill
Carroll to release her as lives of innocent civilians – Iraqi or
foreign – should be well guarded,” they wrote. “Jill ... and her
colleagues have come to Iraq to report the events to the
world, reminding everyone of the hardships faced by the Iraqi
people under occupation. Once more, we call upon our
brothers in the Iraqi resistance not to target media workers.
This contradicts the principles of our religion and doesn't help
the cause of liberating the country.”
Source:
Copyright 2006 Michael
A. csmonitor.com
Bozarth, Ph.D. (March 2006)
Jill Carroll Released
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
Timeline of the Evolution of the
Modern International Terrorist Threat
Timeline adapted from the British Home Office Report on the 07 July 2005
London Bombings, printed by order of the House of Commons, 11 May 2006.
• 1979: Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and subsequent
occupation.
• 1984: Radical preacher Abdullah Azzam set up an organisation
called Maktab al-Khidmat (MAK) “Bureau of Services” to
disseminate propaganda about jihad in Afghanistan. Usama bin
Laden (UbL) joins.
• 1989: Withdrawal of Soviet forces from Afghanistan. UbL returns
to Saudi Arabia. Decision by MAK to continue to support further
jihadist causes. Thinking around “the base” or “foundation”
(translation: Al Qaida) for further operations articulated.
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
• 1988-89: UbL disagreement over focus of the cause and starts
to form Al Qaida. November 1989, Azzam assassinated.
• Early 1990s: Violence in a number of regions worldwide,
including Afghanistan, Egypt, Algeria, Libya, Chechnya, Bosnia,
Tajikistan, East Africa, Yemen and Philippines. Groups that
would later be a significant international terrorist threat formed
eg Libyan Islamic Fighting Group, Abu Sayyaf group in the
Philippines. Extremist support networks created in the UK and
Europe.
• Aug 1990: Iraq invades Kuwait. Saudi Government agrees to
allow US troops to be stationed in the Kingdom for 1st Gulf War.
UbL fiercely opposed.
• 1991: UbL leaves for Sudan. Al Qaida (AQ) changes from being
predominantly paramilitary organisation into a terrorist group,
focussing on the US.
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
• 1992: AQ publishes a fatwa calling for jihad against western
“occupation” of Islamic lands.
• 1990s: Radical young men from the UK go to support jihad
overseas eg Richard Reid, the shoe bomber, left for
Pakistan/Afghanistan in 1997.
• 1992: Somalia: two IED (improvised explosive device) attacks
against hotels where US troops were staying. January 1993,
“Black Hawk down” incident.
• 1993: First World Trade Centre attack.
• 1994: Taliban established.
• 1995: Start of 4-month GIA (Armed Islamic Group) campaign in
France.
• Mid-1996: Relocation of AQ leadership and many other
extremists to Afghanistan.
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
• Jun 1996: Truck bomb at housing complex in Saudi Arabia.
• Aug 1996: UbL publishes fatwa “Declaration of War against the
Americans occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places [Saudi
Arabia]”.
• Nov 1997: Islamic gunmen attack tourists in Luxor, Egypt.
• Feb 1998: UbL’s second fatwa calling for jihad “to kill the
Americans and their allies – civilian and military”.
• Aug 1998: US Embassies in Tanzania and Kenya damaged in
AQ truck bomb attacks. Many dead and injured.
• Dec 1998: Yemen: kidnapping of 16 tourists, including 12
Britons.
• Aug 1999: Russia: start of 2-month series of bombings.
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
• Dec 1999: Indian airlines flight hijacked.
• Oct 2000: suicide bombers directed by AQ attacked USS Cole
in Aden, Yemen.
• Nov 2000: 2 British citizens of Bangladeshi origin arrested in
Birmingham, UK on suspicion of preparing a large quantity of
home made explosives.
• Jan 2001 India: The Red Fort in New Delhi attacked by
Kashmiri militants.
• Sept 2001: AQ operatives crashed hijacked airliners into the
World Trade Centre and Pentagon.
• Late 2001- Early 2002: Coalition action expelled the Taliban,
AQ and other extremist groups from main Afghanistan,
dismantling training camps etc. Freezing of assets and targeting
of support networks.
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
• Oct 2001: Kashmir, India assembly attacked by militants.
• Dec 2001: militants attacked Indian Parliament in New Delhi.
• Dec 2001: disrupted plans to attack US, Australian and British
Missions in Singapore.
• Dec 2001: Richard Reid’s attempted “shoe bomb” attack on US
airliner.
• Jan 2002: Kidnapping and execution of US journalist Daniel
Pearl in Pakistan.
• Apr 2002: attack on Western tourists at synagogue in Tunisia.
• May 2002: attack against a bus transporting French Naval
engineers in Karachi, Pakistan.
• Jun 2002: attack against the US Consulate in Karachi,
Pakistan.
• Jun 2002: : disrupted attacks on Strait of Gibraltar, Morocco.
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
• Oct 2002: : water-borne attack on MV Limburg in Yemen.
• Oct 2002: attack on nightclub in Bali, Indonesia.
• Oct 2002: Chechen terrorists occupy Moscow theatre, taking
hundreds hostage.
• Nov 2002: attack on hotel and Israeli charter aircraft in
Mombasa, Kenya.
• 2002-2003: Ricin plot (UK).
• Feb 2003: Coalition action and removal of Saddam Hussain in
Iraq.
• May 2003: attack on residential compounds and US/Saudi office
in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
• May 2003: attacks on various (including Jewish) targets in
Casablanca, Morocco.
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
• Aug 2003: simultaneous bomb blasts in Mumbai, India.
• Aug 2003: attack on Marriott Hotel in Jakarta, Indonesia.
• Nov 2003: attack on residential compound in Riyadh, Saudi
Arabia.
• Nov 2003: multiple attacks on Jewish and British targets in
Istanbul, Turkey.
• Dec 2003: two assassination attempts on President Musharraf
in Pakistan.
• Feb 2004: bomb on Superferry 14 in Manila, Philippines.
• Mar 2004: multiple attacks on Madrid, Spain train network.
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
• Apr 2004: Al Qaida in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) suicide
attack in Saudi Arabia.
• May 2004: multiple attacks in Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia.
• May- Sept 2004: assassination of Westerners in Saudi Arabia.
• Aug - Sept 2004: Chechen terrorists down 2 passenger aircraft
in Russia, mount suicide bombing on the Moscow metro and
take over 1,000 hostage at a school in North Ossetia.
• Sept 2004: attack on Australian Embassy in Jakarta, Indonesia.
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.
• Oct 2004: attack on Israeli tourists at a hotel and campsites in
Egypt.
• Dec 2004: Further AQ attacks in Saudi Arabia.
• Feb 2005: simultaneous Valentine’s Day bombings in the
Philippines.
• Mar 2005: suicide car bomb against Western theatre in Qatar.
• April 2005: IED detonated in Cairo, Egypt bazaar, suicide
attacks against tourists.
• July 2005: bombings in London, UK.
52 commuters killed along with 4 suicide bombers, 700 others injured
Copyright 2006 Michael A. Bozarth, Ph.D.