Chapter 2
Theories of
Human Development
Issues in Human Development
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
 Freud (1856-1939)
 Sex and
aggression
influence
personality
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
 Psychoanalysis
 unconscious motives and conflicts
 Techniques to expose and interpret unconscious
tensions
Id, Ego and Superego
Id - Instinctual nature of humans
(anger and sex). - the pleasure
principle
Superego provides standards for
judgment (the conscience)
Largely conscious, ego - mediates the demands
of id and superego (reality principle).
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Chapter 3 – Personality
Which horse is the Id? Superego?
Personality Structure
Freudian slip – a slip of the tongue that reveals an
unconscious motive or thought
Exploring the Unconscious
•Feud asked patients to say whatever came to their
mind (free association).
http://www.english.upenn.edu
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Dream Analysis
interpreting the manifest and latent contents of
dreams.
The Nightmare, Henry Fuseli (1791)
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Rorschach Inkblot Test
10 inkblots - designed by Hermann
Rorschach.
1884-1922
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Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT)
Developed by Henry Murray,
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Freud’s Psychosexual Development
• Conflict creates anxiety
• Ego defends against anxiety with defense
mechanisms
• Early experiences have long-term effects on
personality
• Oral stage - first year of life in which the
mouth is the erogenous zone and
weaning is the primary conflict. Id
dominated.
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• Anal stage - second stage - about 2
years of age, the anus is the
erogenous zone and toilet training is
the source of conflict. Ego develops.
– Anal expulsive personality messy,
destructive, and hostile.
– Anal retentive personality - neat, fussy,
stingy, and stubborn.
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• Phallic stage - 3 - 6 years of age, in
which the child discovers sexual
feelings. Superego develops.
Oedipus Complex
A boy’s sexual desires toward his mother
and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the
rival father.
Electra complex for the girl’s desire for
the father.
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Identification
From the K. Vandervelde private collection
Through identification
their superego gains
strength incorporating
parents’ values.
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• Latency - fourth stage - the sexual
feelings of the child are repressed while
the child develops in other ways.
• Genital – sexual feelings reawaken with
appropriate targets.
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Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory
• Strengths
– Awareness of unconscious motivation
– Emphasized important early experience
– Neo-Freudians have been influential
• Weaknesses
– Ambiguous, inconsistent, not testable
– Not supported by research
When a student asked him what was the significance of
his cigar, Freud replied “sometimes a cigar is just a
cigar.”
Erik Erikson (psycho-social theory)
• Most influential neo-Freudian
• Some differences with Freud
– Less emphasis on sexual urges
– More emphasis on rational ego
– More positive and adaptive view of human
nature
– Believed development continues through
adulthood
© 2015. Cengage
Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson
• Strengths
•
– Emphasis on rational and adaptive nature
– Interaction of biological & social influences
– Focus on identity crisis of adolescence still
most relevant
Weaknesses
– Sometimes vague and difficult to test
– Does not explain how development comes
about
Classical Conditioning
 Ivan Pavlov
 1849-1936
 Russian physician/
neurophysiologist
 studied digestive
secretions
Behavioral Approaches
• Classical Conditioning - a type of learning in
which an organism learns to connect or associate
stimuli.
•
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Classical Conditioning
 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

 stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and
naturally--triggers a response
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
 unlearned, naturally occurring response to the
unconditioned stimulus
 salivation when food is in the mouth
Classical Conditioning
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

 originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association
with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a
conditioned response
Conditioned Response (CR)
 learned response to a previously neutral
conditioned stimulus
Acquisition
The CS needs to come half a second before
the US to cause acquisition.
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Classical Conditioning: An Example
Flash of camera (UCS)
Camera (NS)
causes
+
Blinking (UCR)
Flash of camera (UCS)
=
Camera (CS)
Camera (CS)
causes
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
Blinking (CR)
Applications of Classical Conditioning
“coffee break.”
Psychology focuses on
observable behavior
Brown Brothers
John B. Watson
(1878-1958)
What do you think about Watson’s John B.
Watson’s famous quote?
“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed,
and my own specified world to bring them up in
and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and
train him to become any type of specialist I might
select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and,
yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his
talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations,
and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my
facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of
the contrary and they have been doing it for many
thousands of years.”
Conditioned emotional response
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Classical Conditioning
Stimulus generalization
• After association is forged between CS and
CR, learner often responds to similar stimuli
as if they are the original CR.
Stimulus discrimination
• Ability to differentiate between a particular
CS and other significantly different stimuli is
stimulus differentiation.
Classical Conditioning
Extinction
• If the CS is presented time and again without
being accompanied by the US, the
association may fade.
• The CR decreases and eventually disappears
in a process called extinction.
Spontaneous recovery
• With presentation of a CS after a rest period,
the CR may reappear.
• The CR was not forgotten, but suppressed
during the extinction.
Behavioral Approaches
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Operant Behavior - operates (acts) on environment
produces consequences
Consequences (rewards and punishments)
Reinforcement (reward) increases
the probability that a behavior will occur.
Punishment decreases the probability
that a behavior will occur.
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•
•
•
Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement – giving something that the
person wants that increases the behavior
Examples:
– Praise
– Teacher attention
– Rewards
Negative reinforcement – taking away something
that the person does not want that increases the
behavior
– Taking away chores
– Taking away time-out
Types of Punishment
•
•
Positive punishment– giving something that the
person does not want that decreases the behavior
– Detention
– Extra work
Negative Punishment– taking away something that
the person wants that decreases the behavior
– Loss of recess
– Loss of playing video games
Punishment Problems
•5.8 What are some of the problems with using punishment?
•Drawbacks to severe
punishment:
– Fear and anxiety
– Lying
– Avoidance
– Modeling of aggression
Making Punishment More Effective
•Punishment should be:
– Immediate
– Consistent
– Paired with reinforcement
for correct behaviors
Behavioral Approaches
Generalization
Giving the same response
to similar situations.
Discrimination
Differentiating among stimuli
or environmental events.
Extinction
Previously reinforced response
is no longer reinforced and the
response decreases.
One way to deal with a child’s
temper tantrum is to ignore it
resulting in extinction
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Learning new
behavior by
watching a
model behave
bservational
learning
1925- present
Bandura’s Social Cognitive
Theory
Courtesy Dr. Albert Bandura
Bandura’s classic Bobo doll experiment (1961)
Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
• observational learning
– BoBo doll studies
– Model praised or punished or no consequence
– Child learned to imitate rewarded or not
punished model
– Vicarious reinforcement
4 Processes in Observational Learning
Attention
Students are more likely to
be attentive to high status
models (teachers).
Production
Poor motor ability inhibits
reproduction of the model’s
behavior. Help improve skills.
Retention
Student retention will be
improved when teachers give
logical and clear
demonstrations.
Motivation
When given a reinforcement,
modeling increases.
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Modeling Violence
Children modeling after pro wrestlers
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Reciprocal
Determinism
Personal
Environment
Behavior
Social, Cognitive, and
Behavioral factors play
important roles in learning.
Self-efficacy: The belief that
one can master a situation
and produce positive
outcomes.
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Learning Theory: Strengths & Weaknesses
• Strengths
– Precise and testable theory
– Carefully controlled experiments
– Practical applications across lifespan
• Weaknesses
– Inadequate account of lifespan changes
– Ignored genetic and maturational
processes