Behavior Change

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Establishing Behavior
A
Antecedent
B
Behavior
C
Consequence
CONCEPT ANALYSIS OF
BEHAVIORAL CHANGE
ESTABLISH
A
BEHAVIOR
Antecedents
Instruction
Modeling
Guided
Participation
REDUCE
A
BEHAVIOR
INCREASE OR
MAINTAIN A
BEHAVIOR
Consequences
Shaping
Antecedents
Cueing
Consequences
Contingency
Management
Premack
Principle
Antecedents
Consequences
Stimulus
Control
Extinction
Punishment
Reinforce
Competing
Behavior
Haus & Polsgrove, 1980
We must make the assumption that when we ESTABLISH a behavior
we will be replacing an existing behavior.
ESTABLISH
A
BEHAVIOR
Antecedents
Instruction
Modeling
Guided
Participation
Consequences
Shaping
Direct Instruction

Assumption:
–

It is more important to develop instructional
sequences that systematically teach students
essential skills than to spend time attempting to
understand the inner workings of the mind,
temperaments, and developmental levels
Key Principle:
–
both the curriculum materials and teacher
presentation of these materials must be clear,
unambiguous, and directly related to the terminal
objective
Critical Features of Direct
Instruction
An explicit step-by-step strategy must me developed (task
analysis)
Development of mastery at each step in the process
Strategy (or process) corrections for student errors
Gradual fading from teacher directed activities toward
independent work
Use of adequate, systematic practice with range of examples
Cumulative review of newly learned behaviors and concepts
Instruction

Discrete Behaviors: rarely do we want to teach a
behavior in isolation. Most terminal objectives involve a
complex set of behaviors that must be complete in
sequence

Chaining - the performance of a series or sequence of
individual behaviors to achieve a complex behavior.
Example: appropriately entering a classroom




Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Walking into the classroom
Hang up their coats
Putting their lunch boxes into their lockers
Sitting at their desks
B
Walk into classroom
SD
B
Hang up coat
SD
B
Put lunch box away
SD
B
Sit at desk
SD
Task Analysis

most skills are composed of chains of behavior

most skills occur in a consistent sequence


task analysis is the process and product of identifying component
behaviors in their chains
no firm rule exists for determining the number of component
behaviors that should be included in a task analysis
– should begin with a predictable stimulus (SD)
– should end with a reinforcing consequence (R+)
Task Analysis - example
"Time to eat
lunch."
leaves work area and go to sink
turn on water
wet hands
pick up soap
rub soap on other hand
put soap down
rub hands together
rinse hands
turn off water
dry hands on towel
hang up towel
go to eating area
EAT FOOD
Chaining



Chaining is the learning of a series of behaviors to
complete a complex act
Each link in the chain serves as a cue for the next
response in the chain
Types of Chaining
–
–
–
–
Forward Chaining
Total Task Presentation
Backward Chaining
Backward Chaining with Leap Ahead
Forward Chaining




the sequence of behavior identified in the task analysis
is taught in temporal order
reinforcement is delivered when the predetermined
criterion for the first behavior in the sequence is
achieved
thereafter, reinforcement is delivered for criterion
completion of Step 1 + Step 2
each succeeding step requires the cumulative practice
of all previous steps
Forward Chaining (cont)

instruction of each step may include:
–
–
–
–

modeling and demonstration
guided participation
prompting
none
as each successive step is mastered the reinforcement
schedule is decreased
–
–
–
–
continuous
fixed ratio
intermittent
none
advantage: mastered skills are practiced
 disadvantage: terminal consequence delayed

Task Analysis Assessment of Hand
Washing: forward chaining
Step Behavior
turn on water
wet hands
pick up soap
rub soap on other hand
put soap down
rub hands together
rinse hands
turn off water
dry hands on towel
hang up towel
10/1
+
-
2
+
+
-
-
+
+
-
-
-
3
+
+
+
-
-
-
4
+
+
-
-
-
Total Task Presentation






variant of forward chaining
total chain is presented with trainer assistance provided with any
step that the individual is not able to perform
chain is trained until the individual is able to perform all of the
behaviors in sequence to criteria
direct instruction of individual behaviors is provided as in forward
chaining
advantage: all steps in the task are practiced during each
presentation - instruction session
disadvantage: time
Task Analysis Assessment of Hand
Washing: total task
Step Behavior
turn on water
wet hands
pick up soap
rub soap on other hand
put soap down
rub hands together
rinse hands
turn off water
dry hands on towel
hang up towel
10/1
+
+
+
2
+
+
-
3
+
+
+
+
+
+
4
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
Backward Chaining






all tasks identified in the task analysis are first completed by the
trainer, except for the final behavior
when the learner performs the final behavior to successfully,
reinforcement is delivered
subsequently, reinforcement is delivered when the next to last
behavior + last behavior is performed
etc.
advantage: individual is reinforced for task completion at a
hierarchical level (sequence)
disadvantage: limited practice in early steps
Task Analysis Assessment of Hand
Washing: backward chaining
Step Behavior
turn on water
wet hands
pick up soap
rub soap on other hand
put soap down
rub hands together
rinse hands
turn off water
dry hands on towel
hang up towel
10/1
+
2
+
+
3
+
+
+
4
+
+
+
+
Backward Chaining with Leap Ahead

variant of backward chaining

"splinter skills" may be demonstrated

reinforcement still dependent upon completion of terminal step


advantage: allows learner to independently practice mastered
skills thereby speeding up learning
disadvantage: needs close monitoring and withholding of
reinforcement
Task Analysis Assessment of Hand
Washing: backward chaining
Step Behavior
turn on water
wet hands
pick up soap
rub soap on other hand
put soap down
rub hands together
rinse hands
turn off water
dry hands on towel
hang up towel
10/1
+
+
2
+
+
+
3
+
+
+
+
+
4
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Factors Affecting the Performance of a
Behavioral Chain
completeness of the task analysis
length or complexity of the chain
schedule of reinforcement
schedule of nonreinforcement
stimulus variation
response variation
staffing/supervision patterns
Self-Instruction

a process of providing one's own verbal prompts
–
necessary when discriminative stimuli are insufficient
to set the occasion for the required response
–
talking yourself through a multi step sequence of
activities
 " i before e except after c"
 ABC song
 verbalizing preconditions to use as a checklist
Self-Instruction




(Meichenbaum and Goodman, 1971)
An adult model performed a task while talking to himself
aloud (cognitive modeling)
The student performed the same task under the direction
of the model's instruction (overt, external guidance)
The student whispered the instructions to himself as he
went through the task (faded, overt self-guidance)
The student performed the task while guiding his
performance via private speech (covert self-instruction)
Cognitive Modeling
–
Teaching the problem solving / decision making thought process
–
Problem definition
 What is it I have to do? - Get out of this fight situation or get ready to fight?
 Choose the alternative - get out of the fight
–
Focusing attention on the response guidance
 What can I do? Run or Talk (Carefull - choose the right words - Stop and Think!
"I don't really want to fight - this problem is really no big deal.")
–
Self reinforcement
 OK - Good, I'm doing fine -not in a fight yet.
–
Self evaluation coping skills and error correction
 Did I succeed? Yes - what did I do right? No - what should I change next time?
Behavioral Shaping




the process by which one systematically and differentially
reinforces successive approximations to a terminal
behavior
differential reinforcement means that one member of a
response class is reinforced, while other members are not
successive approximation is any intermediate behavior
that is a prerequisite component of the terminal behavior
topography of a behavior includes: intensity, duration, and
rate (amount)
Behavioral Shaping (cont)


The efficiency of behavioral shaping can be increased by using:
– a discriminative stimulus,
– a physical prompt, or
– an imitative prompt
Guidelines:
– select terminal behavior
– determine criterion for success
– identify first behavior to reinforce
– eliminate interfering stimuli
– proceed in limited gradual steps
– link behaviors to terminal behavior
SPED 638
Increasing or Maintaining
Behavior
CONCEPT ANALYSIS OF
BEHAVIORAL CHANGE
ESTABLISH
A
BEHAVIOR
Antecedents
Instruction
Modeling
Guided
Participation
REDUCE
A
BEHAVIOR
INCREASE OR
MAINTAIN A
BEHAVIOR
Consequences
Shaping
Antecedents
Cueing
Consequences
Contingency
Management
Premack
Principle
Antecedents
Consequences
Stimulus
Control
Extinction
Punishment
Reinforce
Competing
Behavior
Haus & Polsgrove, 1980
We must make the assumption that when we INCREASE
a behavior we will be replacing an existing behavior.
INCREASE OR
MAINTAIN A
BEHAVIOR
Antecedents
Cueing
Consequences
Contingency
Management
Premack
Principle
Prompts or Cues
Prompts or Cues



antecedent stimuli that supplement discriminative
stimuli in order to produce a specific target
behavior
the assistance provided to the learner after the
presentation of the instructional stimulus, but
before the response
usually a temporary instructional aid and should
be systematically phased out as soon as possible
Effective Prompting


Prompts should focus student
attention on the SD
Prompts should be as weak as
possible
Least Intrusive


Prompts should be faded as
soon as possible
Unplanned prompts should be
avoided
Natural
Visual
Verbal
Modeling
Most Intrusive
Physical
Guidance
Fade Toward
Eliminating Prompts

Discriminate Stimulus Training

Time Delay Systems
–

gradual increase in time prior to prompt
Fading
–
–
physical prompts
visual prompts
Contingency Management
Positive Reinforcement, Contracting,
and
Token Economies
Contingency Management

Contingency
–
–
–

Management
–

a precise definition of the limits and range of response
topographies that will produce
a specified consequence and
the environmental situation
external control of events
Contingency Management
–
the external management of environmental stimuli that
serve as reinforcers for behavioral performance
Contingent Positive
Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement

The process of reinforcing an appropriate target
behavior in order to increase the probability that
the behavior will recur
–
it is responsive to the child's natural need for attention
and approval
–
it decreases the probability that the child will exhibit
inappropriate behavior in an effort to obtain needed
attention
Essential Rules when using Positive
Reinforcement

FIRST
–

when a child is initially exhibiting a new appropriate
behavior, it must be positively reinforced each time it
occurs
SECOND
–
once the target behavior is established at a
satisfactory rate, the child should be reinforced
intermittently
Steps in the Use of Positive
Reinforcement
Shea & Bauer, 1987
Carefully select a target behavior (do not attempt to reinforce every
positive behavior a child exhibits
Observe the child's behavior to ascertain when he or she engages
in the behavior
During the initial stage, reinforce the behavior immediately after it
is exhibited
Specify for the child the behavior that is being reinforced
When reinforcing, speak with enthusiasm and show interest in the
child's behavior
When appropriate, the practitioner may become involved in the
child's behavior, that is, give the child help
Vary the reinforcer
Contingency or Behavioral
Contract
Contingency or Behavioral Contract

an agreement that specifies a contingent
relationship between the completion of a specified
behavior and access to, or delivery of, a specified
consequence

quid pro quo agreements

explicit and negotiated

verbal or written
Basic Components of a Contract

Task
–
–
–

Consequence
–
–
–
–

who
what
when
who
what
after
how much
Task Record
contract
This is to certify that: George Haus
Will: complete and turn in his daily in-school spelling exercise.
For completing:
completion of work
on-time turning work in
grade of 90-100%
80-89%
70-79%
60-69%
0-59%
- 100 pts.
- 100 pts.
- 200 pts.
- 100 pts.
- 50 pts.
- 25 pts.
- 5 pts.
Points may be spent on FRIDAY of each week.
Mr. Bingo teacher
______________
George Haus
______________
student
Jan 1 - Jan 30 contract dates
______________
1,000 pts. = special privilege PASS CARD
500 pts. = Percent Ticket
100 pts. = 5 free minutes
How do Contracts Work

Positive Reinforcement
–

Negative Reinforcement
–

addition of something wanted
removal of something not wanted
Rule-Governed Behavior
–
specificity generalizes to reality
Desirable Aspects of Contingency
Contracting
a positive reward-based management system
a way for teachers to individualize contingencies
help teachers and parents remain consistent
a good method for involving parents and significant others in the
student's program
encourages active participation and self-determination by the
student
can be used to teach independence and self-control
a fairly simple behavior change intervention that can be
implemented by non professionals
participants usually like it
Essential Elements of a Contract
Task description is present
Described task is observable
When the task will be accomplished is indicated
How much of the task or how well a task will be performed is
indicated
Reward description is present
When the reward will be delivered is indicated
How much of the reward will be delivered is indicated
Reward is indicated to occur at a time after the task has been
completed
Amount of reward is appropriate for the task
Token Economy
Token Economy



behaviors to be reinforced are identified and
defined
a medium of exchange is selected; that medium
of exchange is a symbol called a "token"
backup reinforcers are provided that can be
purchased or exchanged with the token
Tokens




function as "generalized conditioned reinforcer"
– paired with a wide variety of backup reinforcers
token generalized to reinforcer - not the behavior or
setting
used to bridge the "time gap" between performance
and reinforcement
used to bridge the "setting gap" between the delivery of
reinforcement and behavior performance area
Rules for Establishing a Token
Economy
 Select a target behavior
 Conceptualize and present the target behavior as a "what to do" not
"what not to do"
 Post the rules and review them frequently
 Select an appropriate token
 Establish reinforcers for which reinforcers can be exchanged
 Develop a reward menu and post it. Include exchange ratio.
 Implement the token economy on a limit basis initially.
 Provide immediate reinforcement for acceptable behavior
 Gradually change from a continuous to a variable schedule of
reinforcement
 Provide times for students to exchange tokens for rewards
 Revise the reward menu frequently: Content and Ratio
Procedures for Implementing a
Token Economy
Selecting Tokens
 Defining Rules and Behaviors

–

observable, measurable, criteria for successful
completion, easy to hard, prerequisite skills
Select Backup Reinforcers
–
–
naturally occurring activities
artificial activities - tangible items
Establish Ratio of Exchange
 Establish General Procedures
 Field Test

Point Card
Student Name: ________________________ Date: ________
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11
21
2
12
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25
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Point Tally Form
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Point Card for Multipurpose Token Economy
Student Name: ________________________ Date: ________
Work period
Readiness
9:00 - 9:15
*
*
9:15 - 9:30
10:00 -10:30
10:30 -10:45
10:45 -11:30
11:30 -12:00
Social
Work
Behavior
Effort
*
*
Work
Comments
Success
* *
Premack Principle
Premack Principle
A principle stating that any high-probability activity
may serve as a positive reinforcer for any lowprobability activity.
Low Probability
Activity
High Probability
Activity
Stimulus Control, Punishment,
Differential Reinforcement
Reducing Behavior
CONCEPT ANALYSIS OF
BEHAVIORAL CHANGE
ESTABLISH
A
BEHAVIOR
Antecedents
Instruction
Modeling
Guided
Participation
REDUCE
A
BEHAVIOR
INCREASE OR
MAINTAIN A
BEHAVIOR
Consequences
Shaping
Antecedents
Cueing
Consequences
Contingency
Management
Premack
Principle
Antecedents
Consequences
Stimulus
Control
Extinction
Punishment
Reinforce
Competing
Behavior
Haus & Polsgrove, 1980
We must make the assumption that when we DECREASE
a behavior we will cause another behavior to increase.
REDUCE
A
BEHAVIOR
Antecedents
Consequences
Reinforcement of Competing
Behavior
Stimulus Control
Extinction
Time-out
Punishment
Restitution
Satiation
Antecedents to Inappropriate Behavior

Frustration due to:
–
–
–
–

Understimulation: Boredom
–
–
–
–

being ignored
meaningless repetition beyond criterion
nonfunctional activity
pacing too slow
Overstimulation
–
–
–

response ignorance
complex materials, lacking in appropriate behavior
lack of functional vocabulary to communicate
goal or performance interruption
environment
rate of physical prompting or verbalizations
pace of activity
Environmental Expectations or Models
Functions Served by Inappropriate Behavior

Attention Seeking
–
–
–

Means of Escape/Avoidance
–
–

internal stimuli: ear ache, sinus pain, hunger, constipation, etc.
external stimuli: touching, difficult task, change of routine, noise, heat, etc.
Sensory Feedback/Stimulation
–

a communication attempt to indicate needs and wants
historical/current pattern of positive reinforcement resulting in a means to access
people, object, event
inconsistent pattern of reinforcement or punishment
to obtain reinforcement from internal stimulation
Nature of current reinforcement

desirability, quantity, intensity, scheduling, etc.
Stimulus Control
Stimulus Control




An inappropriate behavior chain (e.g., nail biting, smoking,
encopresis) can be broken if the initial SD is determined and an
alternative SD is substituted
The first SD is a chain sets the occasion for the first response,
which, in turn, terminates that S D and produces the onset of the
second SD; and so the chain continues
if the first SD becomes less likely, the whole chain becomes less
likely
to break an inappropriate chain, the cues for not emitting the
initial behavior in the chain must be stronger than the initial cues
that prompted the behavior in the first place
Stimulus Control (cont)
take break
from class
go to
office
smoke
look at
picture
of kids
go to
hall
talk with
students
physical
satisfaction
emotional
satisfaction
Differential Reinforcement
Reinforcement of
Incompatible Behavior
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative
or Incompatible Behavior (DRA & DRI)


underlying principle is that you can weaken a
maladaptive behavior by strengthening an
alternative behavior in its place
incompatible behavior
–

cannot be just any behavior - it must be mutually exclusive
with the maladaptive behavior or must directly compete with
it (in-seat vs. out-of-seat, talking vs. not talking)
alternative or competing behavior
–
are not mutually exclusive - it may be possible to perform
both behaviors at same time
DRA & DRI

Advantages:
–
–
–

they are positive approaches to behavior reduction
without any negative side effects
popular with change agents because desired behavior is
increased
logical - teach what you want not get rid of what you
don't want
Disadvantages:
–
requires a high degree of management to
 establish new behavior
 withhold reinforcement for maladaptive behavior
Differential Reinforcement of the Omission
of Behavior (DRO)



student earns reinforcement for not engaging in the
maladaptive behavior for a specified interval of time
may be Momentary DRO (MDRO) or Whole-Interval DRO
(WDRO)
Advantages:
–

new behavior not established, shaping procedures available,
low management
Disadvantages:
–
replacement behavior not specified or controlled
Extinction
Extinction



occurs when you withhold or remove the
reinforcer maintaining a behavior
is a procedure that gradually reduces the
frequency and/or intensity of a target behavior by
withholding reinforcement from previously
reinforced behavior
extinction can be used to eliminate the connection
between the behavior and the positive
consequences that follow it
Extinction (cont)

Extinction REQUIRES complete control of the reinforcer
–
–

consistency is the most important factor related to the efficacy of
extinction
in most cases, extinction is only effective in reducing behaviors
that are motivated by attention from the teacher/parent/caregiver
Other factors affecting resistance to extinction
–
–
–
–
the schedule of reinforcement that previously maintained the
behavior
the amount of strength of the previous reinforcer
the length of time of the previous behavior-reinforcer association
the frequency of use of extinction with the student: more the
better
Extinction (cont)

Advantages
–
–
–
–

may be effective without the use of physical or verbal
consequences
no use of aversive consequences/punishment
effects tend to be long lasting
when combined with DRI or DRA very effective
Disadvantages
–
–
–
–
temporary increase in behavior expected at start
child frustration
difficult to chose appropriate behavior to use extinction with
must have consistency between and among caregivers and
peers (environment)
Time-Out from Positive
Reinforcement
Time-Out


the removal of a child from an apparently reinforcing
setting to a presumable nonreinforcing setting for a
specified and limited period of time
Types of time-out:
–
–
nonexclusion
 time-out ribbon
 planned ignoring
 removal of specific reinforcers
 observational
exclusion
 seclusion
 isolation
Isolation Time-Out: Guidelines

Duration of time-out
–
–
–
2-minutes
4-5 maximum
never more than 10
Caregiver must be able to clearly observe child
 Child should not be able to see caregiver
 Expectations for child's behavior should be clear
 Set timer for amount of time child is to spend in time-out
Setting should not be reinforcing - remember the purpose of
time-out is to remove the child from reinforcement
 Validate the reinforcement value of the "normal" environment

Time-Out Log
Type of TO: obs = observational ign = ignore sec = seclusion iso = isolation
Tommy Jones
Child _________________________________________
Ms. Smith
Supervisor ____________________________________
Friday, 3-30-02
Date _____________
Time
Enters
Type
Leaves
10:05 10:10
ign
Behavior before
time-out
Verbal interruptions
Behavior during
time-out
Quite, watched class
Behavior after
time-out
Waited for turn
Advantages of Time Out

Easy to integrate with positive reinforcement
program to increase appropriate behavior

Effects of T.O. process usually rapid

Nonexclusion T.O. may be employed without removing the child

T.O. viable alternative to more intrusive behavior reduction strategies
Potential Disadvantages of T.O.

T.O. may be abused - duration & frequency

Caregivers may use it as a "break"


Frequent T.O. removes the child from the
educational environment
Child may exhibit other inappropriate behaviors
when caregivers remove positive reinforcement
Punishment
Punishment




the addition of an aversive stimulus as a consequence of a behavior may be physical or psychological
the subtraction of something the child perceives as desirable response cost
punishment by deprivation or response-cost is generally considered
less harmful to the child and more effective intervention than the
addition of physical or psychological aversive stimuli
the short-term effectiveness of punishment for decreasing behaviors
is not disputed - punishment is effective for obtaining short-term goals
Punishment


Reasons for avoiding the use of punishment:
– It does not eliminate but merely suppresses the behavior
– It does not provide a model for the desired acceptable behavior
– Aggression on the part of the practitioner presents an undesirable
model
– The emotional results of punishment may be fear, tension, stress,
or withdrawal
– The child's resulting frustration may result in further deviation
Punishment is associated with the punisher rather than with the
unacceptable behavior
Punishment

Commonly used punishments
–
–
–
–
–
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
denying participation in scheduled activities
denying snacks
physical punishment
verbal punishment
having the child stand apart from the others
having the child wear a sign
If punishment is to be used: guidelines to use
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specify and communicate the punishable behavior to the child by means of
classroom rules for behavior
post the rules where the children can see them; review them frequently
provide models of acceptable behavior
apply the punishment consistently, not whimsically
be fair in using the punishment
impose the punishment impersonally - do not punish when you are angry or
otherwise out of self-control
Punishment

Loss of Privileges - response cost

Guidelines
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Be sure the child understands the relationship between the target behavior
and the privilege to be lost
Be sure the child knows the punishable behavior and the consequence of
exhibiting it
When possible use natural or logical consequences
Apply the loss of privilege interventions fairly
Avoid warning, nagging, or threatening
Do not debate the punishable behaviors, the rules, or the punishment once
these have been established
Do not become emotionally involved, Don't feel guilty when the child loses a
privilege
Be consistent
Reinforce appropriate behavior; do not emphasize inappropriate behaviors
only
Punishment


Reprimands - to be scolded, "yelled at", "bawled out", or otherwise
verbally chastised for exhibiting an inappropriate target behavior
Guidelines
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Be specific. Tell the child exactly what inappropriate behavior is being
reprimanded
Reprimand the behavior, do not denigrate the child
Reprimand immediately
Be firm in voice and physical demeanor
If either the child or others may be harmed by the behavior, remove the child
Encourage the child to behave appropriately and include a statement of the
appropriate behavior in the reprimand
Be calm
When it is over, it is over.
Always observe the child's reaction to the reprimand to determine if it is
aversive.
Restitution and
Overcorrection
Restitution & Restitutional
Overcorrection

Restitution
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
a procedure that requires and individual to return the
environment to its state prior to a behavior that
changed the environment
Restitutional Overcorrection
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the child is not only required to perform restitution but
to "restore the situation to a state vastly improved
from that which existed before the disruption."
If the Child:
Restitution
Restitution +
Overcorrection
damages car
pay for repair
pay for new car
throws things
pick up items thrown
pick up all items on floor
makes a mess during
play or other activity
clean play area
clean entire room
drops food on floor
sweep up food
sweep entire floor
writes on wall
wash the writing
wash entire wall
damages school
property
repair property to
condition prior to
repair property damaged
and perform additional
behavior
service to school
property
Satiation
Satiation

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the tendency for an act or stimulus to become less attractive to the subject upon
repetition
the decreasing or elimination of an inappropriate behavior as a result of continued
and increased

presentation of the SD

reinforcement of the behavior
Must be implemented with a continuous or fixed reinforcement schedule
very helpful tool for decreasing behaviors that "appear" to be appropriate
– pencil sharpening
– putting paper in the waste basket
– getting drinks of water
– etc.
the end
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